Dear Reader,
This edition of my Study Guide is presented in HTML format. You shouldn't have much trouble printing or saving this file from your browser. In its wordprocessor for, it consists of 115 pages and mentions in one way or another just about all you need to pass the BJCP exam. It may be larger or smaller in the HTML format - based on the characteristics of your browser.
As I warn in the text, this is a distilled version of the information you need to pass the test. It is NOT a substitute for the references cited and the wealth of information they contain. Unless you're willing to obtain some of these references and read and understand them thoroughly, this Guide will not be of much use to you.
Feel free to circulate this guide in any way you wish that does not involve any money changing hands. And I'd appreciate my name, information on the HTML conversion and the titling of this document being included in any copies you make.
The pages of questions at the end were taken from actual exams and were distributed far and wide via homebrew club newsletters and the Net during 1994. They are compiled here by subject and are an excellent study aid. Needless to say, if you can answer every one of these questions well without referring to a book or guide you'll do very well on the test! Feel free to circulate the questions separately from the Guide if you wish.
If you find any errors in the content please send me a note at my email address, WALZENBREW@aol.com. If you find errors with this HTML presentation of the study guide, please contact Pat Babcock at pbabcock@oeonline.com.
Cheers and Good Luck!
Greg Walz
T.R.A.S.H. - Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
By the same token, though nowhere near the level of energy expended by Greg, the conversion of this document to HTML format and it's mainatenance requires a bit of time as well. All I ask is that the HTML conversion information and the shameless plug for my homepage remain intact when you pass this along.
And further pay us both by doing well on the exam!
May your glass ne'er go empty!
Pat Babcock
http://oeonline.com/~pbabcock/brew.html
The Fermental Order Of Renaissance Draughtsmen - Dearbon, Michigan
4/12/96
Copyright ©1992,1996 by Gregory J. Walz HTML conversion Copyright ©1996 BabsTech Enterprises
1. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
2. REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
3. THE BEER JUDGE CERTIFICATION PROGRAM. . . . . .7
4. THE REINHEITSGEBOT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5. THE INGREDIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
I wrote this study guide while studying for the Beer Judge Certification Exam back in 1990. These are my notes. I received a 90% the first time I took the BJCE as a result of writing these notes as part of the process of studying and reviewing for the exam.
Please be aware of four things when using this study guide. First, it is just that - sort of a "Cliff's Notes" on the material that is needed to pass the BJCE. It is no substitute for reading and thoroughly understanding the references cited in the next section. It should be used only in conjunction with these references, as a review source and night-before study guide.
Second, it is no substitute for actually brewing. Reading about brewing and making a batch, even a simple extract brew, are worlds apart. If you aren't a brewer yourself, you owe it to yourself to try your hand at brewing, or at least work with an experienced homebrewer to help make a batch. Only then will you be in the proper position to judge the efforts of other brewers. Note also that about 30% of the questions on a typical BJCP Exam require detailed knowledge of the process of brewing - knowledge that simply cannot be obtained without hands-on brewing experience.
Third, it is no substitute for actually tasting and evaluating beers. 30% of the BJCE exam is based on your ability to taste and properly evaluate four beers. This can only be obtained through practice - in other words, tasting and evaluating beers as though you were judging them in a competition. Use of the AHA/HWBTA score sheets while doing this is a great help, but you can be mentally judging any beer you drink - even in a bar with friends. Skill in judging beer is like playing the piano - it can only be obtained and developed through continual practice.
Fourth, at least one question on the exam is a test of your overall beer knowledge. This question may be tailored to where you take the exam. For example, when I took it in Pittsburgh, PA, in 1990 the question was to name and describe five microbrewery beers brewed west of the Mississippi. For a California resident this would be a give-away question; but for someone from Pennsyl- vania, where these beers were not available at that time, this was a challenge. Keep this in mind - this study guide will not help you with questions of this nature.
Remember - you'll do well on the exam if you obtain and read the listed references, brew a lot of beer, and practice tasting beers. Use this study guide only as a review.
Good Luck!
THESE ARE REQUIRED READING FOR A HIGH SCORE ON THE BJCE:
Jackson, Michael. THE NEW WORLD GUIDE TO BEER. Running Press, Philadelphia PA 1988. $19.95 (from the AHA). The definitive work on world beer styles, brands, and beer history. Invaluable as a study guide. Try to get the latest edition. Read it cover to cover.
Jackson, Michael. THE SIMON AND SCHUSTER POCKET GUIDE TO BEER. Simon and Schuster, New York. 1991. $9.95. This is a good summary of the other Jackson book, and is small enough to carry with you. Make sure you get the latest edition.
Noonan, Gregory J. BREWING LAGER BEER, Brewers Publications, Boulder CO. 1986. $14.95 (AHA members $12.95). The best source of technical information on the process of brewing. You don't need this much info to brew or even to pass the BJCE, but knowing it will help you to understand the "whys" of certain rules and techniques in the brewing process (and get you a higher score). Read it from cover to cover if you want a high score.
Papazian, Charles N. THE NEW COMPLETE JOY OF HOME BREWING, Avon Books, New York. 1991. The best guide to home brewing and the necessary aspects to the process of brewing, written in easy-to-follow and easy-to-understand language. If you're not brewing now this is the only book you'll need to get started. Read it from cover to cover. Be sure to get the revised edition - it has an index.
Smith, Gregg. THE BEER ENTHUSIAST'S GUIDE, Storey Communications, Inc., Pownal, VT. 1994. An excellent overall guide covering all of the areas that you need to know for the BJCP exam, in a manner similar to this Study Guide. A good book to take to judging sessions, as all of the necessary reference information is at your fingertips.
BEER JUDGE CERTIFICATION PROGRAM flyer, available from the BJCP c/o Celebrator Beer News, PO Box 375, Hayward, CA. This is a "must have" pamphlet that explains the current rules and regula- tions of the program. Note that almost every exam will have a question about the structure of the program, levels of certifi- cation, and points. This pamphlet is the source of this informa- tion. Read and memorize. Contact the BJCP for price.
Forget, Carl. DICTIONARY OF BEER AND BREWING. Brewers Publica- tions, Boulder, CO. 1988. $19.95 (AHA members $15.95). A good source of instant definitions for those troublesome terms that you encounter in your reading.
Eckhardt, Fred. THE ESSENTIALS OF BEER STYLES, All Brewers Information Service, Portland OR. 1989 $14.59. This is the book that the judges carry to the competitions. An excellent reference to the styles, with facts and figures hard to find otherwise.
THE CLASSIC BEER STYLE SERIES, Brewers Publications, Boulder CO. There are presently (1994) nine books in this series, PALE ALE and PORTER, both by Terry Foster; CONTINENTAL Pilsner by David Miller; LAMBIC by Jean-Xavier Guinard, VIENNA by George and Laurie Fix, BOCK by Darryl Richman, SCOTCH ALE by Greg Noonan, GERMAN WHEAT BEER by Eric Warner, and BELGIAN ALE by Pierre Rajotte. All are $11.95 ($9.95 to AHA members) and will give you enough detail on the particular style to make you an expert, plus instructions on how to brew it. This series will undoubtedly continue until all the styles are included. Highly recommended.
ZYMURGY magazine, Volume 10, Number 5, Winter 1987. $4.00. Available from the American Homebrewers Association. Good article on sanitizing water used with small-batch extract brewing (Page 41-43).
ZYMURGY magazine, Volume 11, Number 3, Fall 1988. $4.00. Available from the American Homebrewers Association. Good description of beer colors and the Lovibond color scale in this issue (Page 30-33).
ZYMURGY SPECIAL ANNUAL ISSUES. Published by the AHA, the annual Zymurgy Special Issues are packed with useful information. All are currently $8.50 each. Some of the more notable issues that are still available from the AHA include:
Traditional Beer Styles Issue, Volume 14 Number 4, 1991. Excellent descriptions of styles and their histories.
NOTE - THE MATERIAL PRESENTED IN BOLD CAPS WILL BE INCLUDED IN THE EXAMINATION AND SHOULD BE MEMORIZED.
THIS PROGRAM IS DESIGNED TO CERTIFY JUDGES BASED ON THEIR KNOWLEDGE OF BEER STYLES, BREWING PROCESSES, BREWING HISTORY, TASTING ABILITY, AND THE ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE THEIR KNOWLEDGE IN WRITING.
A TEST IS GIVEN, WITH 70% WRITTEN ESSAY TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF BEER AND BREWING (AS WELL AS YOUR WRITING/COMMUNICATIONS ABILITY). TASTING FOUR BEERS COUNTS FOR 30%, AND TESTS YOUR ABILITY TO PICK UP FLAVORS AND IDENTIFY STYLES (AS WELL AS LEGIBLY FILL OUT AND ACCURATELY ADD UP A SCORE SHEET). AN OVERALL SCORE OF 60% IS NEEDED TO PASS THE TEST.
FOUR LEVELS OF JUDGE CERTIFICATION EXIST. THESE ARE ARRIVED AT THROUGH A COMBINATION OF TEST SCORES AND EXPERIENCE POINTS ACCUMU- LATED BY JUDGING AND PARTICIPATING IN COMPETITIONS.
RECOGNIZED JUDGE - 60% ON EXAM. NO EXPERIENCE POINTS NEEDED SINCE THIS IS AN ENTRY LEVEL POSITION. NO MATTER HOW MUCH HIGHER YOUR EXAM SCORE, YOU WILL REMAIN IN THIS CATEGORY UNTIL YOU ACCUMULATE EXPERIENCE POINTS.
CERTIFIED JUDGE - 70% ON EXAM, AND 5 EXPERIENCE POINTS, 2 1/2 OF WHICH MUST COME FROM ACTUALLY JUDGING BEER.
NATIONAL JUDGE - 80% ON EXAM, AND 20 EXPERIENCE POINTS, 10 OF WHICH MUST COME FROM ACTUALLY JUDGING BEER.
MASTER JUDGE - 90% ON EXAM, AND 40 EXPERIENCE POINTS, 20 OF WHICH MUST COME FROM ACTUALLY JUDGING BEER.
GRAND MASTER JUDGE, FIRST DEGREE - 90% ON EXAM AND 100 EXPERIENCE POINTS, 50 OF WHICH MUST BE FROM JUDGING BEER, AND HAS PERFORMED A PERIOD OF SERVICE FOR THE BJCP TO BE DETERMINED BY THE CO-DIRECTORS ON AN INDIVIDUAL BASIS. ADDITIONAL DEGREES CAN BE EARNED WITH EACH ADDITIONAL 100 POINT INCREMENT AND THE PERFOR- MANCE OF ADDITIONAL SERVICE FOR THE BJCP.
MEMBERS OF THE BJCP AND THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE ARE CONSIDERED HONORARY MASTER JUDGES DURING THEIR TERMS OF OFFICE. THEY MAY ALSO APPOINT KNOWN TASTING/BEER EXPERTS TO THIS POSITION.
Competitions must be sanctioned by either the BJCP or the AHA for points to accumulate, and points only given after a summary form sent in by the organizer to the BJCP program administrator.
A JUDGE REMAINS ON THE ACTIVE LIST FOR 2 YEARS AFTER THE EXAM OR THE LAST EXPERIENCE POINT. THEN HE OR SHE IS PLACED ON THE INACTIVE LIST FOR TWO MORE YEARS. NO POINTS ACCUMULATED FOR 4 YEARS RESULTS IN BEING DROPPED FROM THE PROGRAM.
The examination is given annually at the AHA Annual Convention (usually held in June) and at other times and places around the country. Contact the BJCP for these times and places.
EXPERIENCE POINTS are accumulated according to the following schedule:
NUMBER OF ORGANIZER ASSISTANT BEST OF SHOW JUDGE STEWARD ENTRIES ORGANIZER JUDGE 1-74 2 0 1 0.5 0 75-149 3 0 2 1 0.5 150-299 5 1 2 1 0.5 300-499 7 3 2 1 0.5 500-UP 10 5 3 0.5-2* 0.5 NATIONAL SAME AS ABOVE 5 0.5-5+ 1 (AHA,HWBTA)* Judges at extra-large regional competitions having 500 or more entries will receive 0.5 experience point per judging session with a maximum of 1 point per calendar day of judging (but not less than 1 experience point for the event) and a total maximum of 2 experience points for the event.
+ Judges at annual AHA and/or HWBTA National Competitions will receive, at the first round of a National Competition, 0.5 experience point per judging session with a maximum of 1 point per calendar day of judging and a total maximum of three experience points for the first round event. Judges at the second round AHA National Competition will receive 2 experience points. NOTE: This is subject to change; contact the BJCP for latest info.
Other rules include that the organizer may delegate points to assistants, minimum 1/2 point. Only one type of point (judging, organizing, or stewarding) may be earned at any one competition; however, a steward, judge or Best of Show judge may receive up to one organizer or assistant organizer experience point as assigned by the Competition Organizer. Best-of-show judging points can only be given if there are at least six entries in five different style categories. Only one Best of Show judge is permitted for every 25 entries, with a total maximum of four per event.
Note that these rules, point schedules, and certification levels are subject to change. Get the latest information before taking the examination (see the REFERENCES section).
Although "beer" has, for centuries, been made from a variety of fermentables, additives and seasoning spices, the most popular definition of "beer" is a fermented brew made from malted grains, hops, water, and yeast.
The Reinheitsgebot, or "Order of Purity", was issued by Wilhelm IV, Duke of Bavaria, in the year 1516, to guarantee the purity and quality of beer and to ban the use of questionable (and sometimes dangerous) additives. The Reinheitsgebot stated that beer can be brewed only from malt, hops, and water (yeast was unknown in the 16th century). The Reinheitsgebot is thus the world's oldest consumer protection / product quality law still in effect.
This decree formed part of the basic law of Bavaria, and its retention was a condition of Bavaria's admittance to the Republic of Germany in 1919. Followed throughout the Republic of Germany (and West Germany after WW II), the Reinheitsgebot was interpreted to forbid the brewing or sale of any fermented grain beverage as "beer" unless made from only the four ingredients.
In 1987 the European Court (acting for the Common Market) declared the law to be "protectionist." As a result, beers not meeting the Reinheitsgebot (such as most American beers and many Belgian styles) can now be sold in Germany as "beer." However, all German brewers are united in their commitment to continue following the Reinheitsgebot with the beers they brew. This has been extended to the breweries of former East Germany when the two countries were reunited in October of 1990.
A common misconception about the Reinheitsgebot is that beers brewed to this standard have to be made from 100% barley malt. Were this true, brewing Bavarian weizenbiers (or any other German style, such as Klsch, that uses malted wheat) would be forbidden - and we all know this is not the case! Today the Reinheitsgebot is interpreted to mean that beer must be brewed from malted cereal grains. Thus the use of malted wheat (or malted rye or malted oats) in a beer would not disqualify it from meeting the Rein- heitsgebot, but use of, say, unmalted roasted black barley (as found in Irish Stout) would result in disqualification. Eric Warner, in "German Wheat Beer" (see Reference section) says, "The Reinheitsgebot...law requires that only malted cereal grains be used for brewing any German beer." German brewers, additionally, presently restrict the use of malted grains other than barley to those styles made with ale yeasts.
Note the following common adjuncts that would not be permitted in a true Reinheitsgebot beer: Corn grits, rice, flaked maize, unmalted barley (or other unmalted cereal grains), corn sugar, candy sugar, corn syrup, maltodextrin, Irish moss, gelatin, isinglass, fruit, spices other than hops, honey, etc.
While the Reinheitsgebot has been quite effective over the centuries in protecting the quality and purity of German beer, keep in mind that we, as homebrewers, do not have to be limited by it, and are thus free to explore the world's wealth of beer styles and ingredients.
Barley is the source of the fermentable sugars in beer. The barley kernel is the seed of a plant of the grass family, Gramineae. It grows best in cool, dry climates, but is found just about everywhere. Barley malt is formed by sprouting barley kernels to a desired length, then stripping off the rootlets and kilning the kernels to a specific degree.
Barley kernels, or corns, are the seed of the barley plant. They consist of a germ, which is the actual germinating portion, the endosperm, which is the starch or food source for the germinating germ, all surrounded by the husk, which is almost all cellulose. The acrospire is the portion of the plant that will remain above ground. Growing from the germ, the length of the acrospire determines the changed content, or degree of modification, of the barley.
Two varieties of barley are commonly used in brewing. They are distinguished by the number of fertile flowers on the heads along the central stem. Two-row barley (Hordeum vulgare) has only two of the six flowers on the head fertile and able to produce kernels. Six row barley has all kernels fertile. An intermedi- ate variety, called four-row, which grows well in cold climates, is in fact a six-row variety, but not widely used in brewing due to the high protein content of the kernels.
Two-row barley will have bigger kernels, and thus more potential fermentables than six-row. It will also have a smaller husk content, which makes 2-row beers taste less husky/tannic, and a smaller protein content. All-malt two-row beers will taste smoother than similar beers made with six-row. Six row barley, however, gives more yield per acre and has more enzymes, so it is the choice whenever large amounts of adjuncts will be used. All-malt beers made exclusively with six-row will be darker than two-row beers and taste heavy. The extra husk content of six-row, however, aids in providing a lautering filterbed.
According to Greg Noonan (BREWING LAGER BEER, see References), brewer's barley will be the pick of the harvest, generally able to stay on a 3/32 inch screen, and will be plump and well-formed. 95% of brewer's grade barley is usually maltable. It should not be high in moisture, and should not have more than 1.6% nitrogen.
Inland grown barley is known as "Continental", and has a higher protein content and makes maltier beers than coastal, or "Mari- time" barleys, which tend to make lighter tasting beers. Continental barley, which is most of that used and grown in Germany, requires a protein rest to reduce the proteins, which is why a decoction mash is preferred for German styles. Maritime barleys (Denmark and Britain) are suited for infusion mashing when properly modified.
The process of malting is done to convert the large, insoluble starch chains of the endosperm to water-soluble starches, and to activate both the proteolytic and diastatic enzymes that will reduce the proteins and starches into desirable components in the mash.
Malting is basically sprouting the grains to a desired degree of acrospire growth, or "degree of modification". The acrospire grows from the germ end of the corn to the opposite end. The ratio of the acrospire length to the length is the degree of modification, expressed as a percent or ratio.
A ratio of 1.0 is indicative of fully-modified malt. Such a malt will be low in protein content and will have the endosperm almost fully converted to water-soluble gum. However, the starch content will be reduced through its consumption during the growth of the acrospire and the rootlets.
American and Continental malts are less fully modified. Continen- tal malt is modified only to 1/2 degree, which retains more of the endosperm for fermentability, and creates greater nitrogen complexity, but at the price of reduced enzyme activity. American six-row is also modified to between 1/2 and 3/4 degree, but the higher protein and nitrogen content of six-row gives greater enzyme strength. Both Continental and American malts require a protein rest (122 degrees approx.) to degrade the albuminous proteins into fractions that can be both used to promote yeast growth and give good head retention.
The barley is steeped in 50-65 degree water for about two or three days, then allowed to germinate for six to ten days between 50 and 70 degrees. The acrospire will usually grow to 1/2 degree at about the sixth day of germination. At the end of germination, the malt is gradually raised in temperature to 90 degrees, held there for 24 hours to permit enzyme action, then gradually raised to 120 degrees. This temperature is held for 12 hours to dry the malt, as it is essential that the malt be bone-dry before being
heated to roasting temperatures to prevent the destruction of the necessary enzymes.
Kilning, or roasting the malt, combined with the degree of modification, determines the type and character of the grain. Vienna malts are low-kilned at around 145 degrees. British and American pale malts at between 130 and 180 degrees. Czech malts are raised slowly from 120 to 170 degrees to dry, then roasted at 178 degrees. Dortmund and Munich malts are slow-germinated at low temperatures, then slowly dried, raising the temperature to 195-205 degrees for Dortmunder malt, and 210 to 244 for Munich malt.
Crystal malt is fully modified, then kilned at 50% moisture content. The temperature is raised to 150-170 degrees and held for 1 1/2 to 2 hours. This mashes the starches into sugars and liquefies it. The malt is then heated to 250 degrees for final roasting, the time of roasting determining the Lovibond color index desired.
Amber malt is well-modified, and then dried and heated to 200
degrees in 20 minutes. It is then heated to 280-300 degrees, and held there until the desired color is reached.
Chocolate and Black Patent malts are undermodified (less than 1/2), dried to 5% moisture, then roasted at 420-450 degrees for up to two hours, depending on the degree of roastiness desired.
Malts kilned over smoky beechwood fires, as in Bamberg, pick up a rich, heavy smokiness (which is imparted to the beer) from the phenols in the smoke.
Kilning at the maximum temperature is generally done only until the grains are evenly roasted. They are then cooled to below 100 degrees, and the rootlets removed. Malts should be allowed to rest for a month or so before being mashed.
The barley corn contains sugars, starches, enzymes, proteins, tan- nins, cellulose, and nitrogenous compounds for the most part. The starches will be converted into sugars by the enzymes during the mash, and will become both simple and complex sugars. Monosaccha- rides are the simplest sugars and have only one basic sugar structure in the molecule. Monosaccharides in beer include glucose, fructose, mannose and galactose. Disaccharides are made
up of two monosaccharides coupled together, and include maltose, isomaltose, fructose, melibiose, and lactose. Trisaccharides (three monosaccharides) include maltotriose, which is fermentable slowly and sustains the yeast during lagering. Oligosaccharides constructed of glucose chains (many monosaccharides joined together) are water soluble and called small dextrins. These are reduced into simpler sugars by the diastatic enzymes. Hemicellu- lose and soluble gums account for about 10% of the corn weight. These are combinations of polysaccharides and proteins. The gums are soluble and reducible, but the hemicellulose must be reduced by the proteolytic enzymes into fractions that permit good head retention, or they will cloud the beer.
Cellulose and tannins make up the husks. They are only used to filter the beer during lautering. Care must be taken not to leach out the tannins by hot (>170 degree) sparging or excessive sparging or alkaline runoff. Proteins in the kernel serve as food for the germ. These must be reduced by proteolytic enzymes into less complex albumins and amino acids. The amino acids are essential for proper yeast growth and development. Molecular weight proteins of 17000 to 150000 must be reduced to albumins of 500-12000 for good head formation, and some further to 400-1500 for proper yeast nutrition. As enzymes are proteins, the protein content of the malt is an indication of its enzymatic strength.
Peptides of the B-complex vitamins are also present, and necessary for yeast development. Polyphenols and tannins are present in the husks, and should not be allowed to leach into the beer. Fatty acids and lipids present in the grains should not be leached into the beer by excessive sparging as they can cause off flavors and head loss. Phosphates in the mash are responsible for the acidulation of the mash. Yeast also use these and other trace elements.
Beer color is determined by the types of malts used, and is a very specific characteristic of the styles. Two scales are used for color determination - the EBC scale used in Europe, and the Lovibond scale (degrees L) in the USA.
The Lovibond scale goes from low to high, with low numbers referring to lighter colors. For example, an American lite beer would be around 1-2.5 degrees, a Pilsner between 2.5-4.5, a Marzen in the 9-14 degree range, and a Dopplebock in the 22-30 degree range. Some stouts can be over 60 degrees in color, and are as inky black as coffee.
To get the final beer color, simply multiply the amount of malt used in pounds by its color, and divide by the boil size in gallons. Sum these numbers for all the malt varieties used. For example, 10 lbs of German Pilsner malt of 1.6 degrees in a 5 gallon batch would give a color of 16/5, or 3.2 degrees.
To calculate color in formulating a recipe, you need to know the Lovibond rating for the malts you wish to use. If this is not given, use the table below:
MALT VARIETY COLOR IN DEGREES LOVIBOND
US 2-row ------------------------- 1.4 - 1.8
US 6-row ------------------------- 1.5 - 1.9
Canadian 2-row ------------------- 1.3 - 1.7
Canadian 6-row ------------------- 1.4 - 1.9
German Pils 2-row ---------------- 1.6
German Lager 2-row --------------- 1.7
Dextrin or Cara-Pils ------------- 1.3 - 1.8
Wheat Malt ----------------------- 1.6 - 1.8
Pale Ale malt (British) ---------- 3.0
Vienna Malt ---------------------- 3 - 5
Light Munich --------------------- 8 - 11
Dark Munich ---------------------- 18 - 22
Crystal -------------------------- 10 - 120
Chocolate Malt ------------------- 325 - 375
Black Patent Malt ---------------- 475 - 525
Roasted Nonmalted Black Barley --- 500 - 550
Finally, to convert from EBC to degrees L:
EBC = (2.65 X L) - 1.2
L = (EBC + 1.2) / 2.65
Note that these formulas are only rough approximations, since different methods are used in their determinations.
(Reference: "A Simple Technique for Evaluating Beer Color" by George Fix, ZYMURGY magazine, Volume 11, Number 3, Fall 1988.)
Hops are the conelike flowers, or "strobiles", of the vine Humulus Lupus. The strobiles are formed by a cluster of petallike greenish-yellow bracts and bracteoles emerging from a central stem. The appearance is similar to a small green pine cone. Each bract bears many tiny yellow sacs called "lupulin" at the base. Lupulin is as much as 15% of the hops by weight and contain the essential oils, resins, bittering principles, polyphenols, and tannins.
Humulus Lupus is closely related to the Cannabis family, and is bisexual (male and female). Only the female plant is cultivated, as hops are reproduced by root cuttings. In fact, except in Kent, England, the male plant is suppressed, as it is felt that unfertilized cones produce better beer (the opposite is felt in southeastern England).
Hop vines are a perennial plant, springing up from the roots in early spring. As they are a vine, they must be given a rope or wire on which to climb. These structures are standard fixtures in hop yards. Hop cultivators will generally suppress all but one or two shoots from each root stock, to channel the plant's energy into the generation of cones (the cutoff shoots are quite edible, and considered a delicacy when cooked like asparagus).
The cones are ready for harvesting in August or early September, and are dried from 70 to 80% moisture content to 8-10% at temperatures of 140-150 degrees, or below 130 degrees if strongly aromatic. After drying, they are packaged in such a manner as to minimize exposure to the atmosphere or oxygen. Homebrewers should keep all hops (leaf or pellets) stored in airtight barrier bags or jars in the freezer until ready for use.
Hops have been used to season beer since about the ninth century. Before this other seasonings, such as juniper, coriander, yarrow and similar spices were used to counteract the malty sweetness of the wort. The dominance of the hop as the seasoning of choice came around the 15th century, as brewers realized that beer made with hops kept better than beer made with other seasonings. Only in the 19th century was the effect of the hop on reducing the spread of certain bacteria fully understood.
Lupulin, the yellow "dust" seen in fresh hop cones, accounts for as much as 15% of the hops by weight and contain the essential oils, resins, bittering principles, polyphenols, and tannins that are used by the brewer. Hop resins are classified as alpha and beta. Alpha resins are alpha acids, and are responsible for the bittering content of the hops. These acids are isomerized by boiling and then become soluble. Other alpha resins are responsible for the anti-bacterial properties of hops, especially their ability to prevent the growth of lactobacillus and other gram-positive strains. Beta resins are more aromatic but are only slightly soluble, and thus make very little contribution to the brew unless oxidized. As they are unstable, when oxidized they taint the beer with a spoiled-vegetable taste.
Essential oils in the hop cones are responsible for the characteristic hop aroma. These oils, however, are very volatile and are driven off in the wort boil in a very short time. Hops added at the start of the boil will display little or no aroma at the end of the boil, since these oils will have been driven off. Hopping within 15 minutes of the end of the boil, at the end of the boil in the hop back, or dry hopping with added hops or hop "tea" will give the characteristic aroma without adding bitterness to the beer.
The tannins in hops aid in protein clarification, as free large-molecular-weight proteins will cling to the tannins and, by virtue of the increased weight, sink to the bottom and thus be removed from the beer. Hop resins will also preserve the simpler proteins necessary for head retention.
There are many hop varieties. The hop plant is cultivated worldwide, and different varieties, or the same variety grown in different locations, will display different characteristics.
Hops are divided generally into two categories - "aroma" hops and "bittering" hops. Although all hops will have both to a degree, varieties are cultivated to specialize in one or the other. Some varieties display both characteristics, although this is a recent occurrence.
Classic aromatic hop varieties include Saaz, the classic Czech pilsner hop from the Zatec region; Hallertauer, Mittelfruh, and Tettnanger from South Germany; Kent Goldings and Fuggles from Britain; and Cascade and Willamette from the USA.
Some popular bittering varieties include Perle, Galena, Eroica, Nugget, Northern Brewer and Bullion. These hops contribute a large bittering component, and therefore can be used in smaller quantities to impart bitterness to the beer.
Bitterness is measured by the "alpha acid content" of the hop variety. This is expressed as a percentage of alpha acids in terms of the total weight of the hops. In general, bittering varieties will have high alpha acid percentages and less aroma, while aroma hops will have low to moderate alpha content (and thus bitter to a lower degree).
Bitterness extracted during the wort is a function of the alpha acid content of the hop used, the amount used, and the length of the boil. This factor, called the International Bittering Unit, IBU (or BU), is determined for each hop addition during the boil, and summed to give a total bitterness factor for the beer. IBU for each hop addition can be found by the equation:
IBU = (alpha acid% * ounces * Utilization% * 7462) /
(V gallons * (1+GA))
Total IBU = Sum of IBU values for all hops added.
IBU refers to ASBC bittering units, and is defined as .0001335 of an ounce of iso-alpha acid per gallon of solution. Utilization percentage is determined by the length of time the hops are in the boil, with an 8% utilization figure for a 10-15 minute boil, and a 30% utilization typical for a 60 minute boil. GA is a specific gravity adjustment to compensate for reduced hop utilization in boiling worts above 1.050 SG, and is equal to the gravity of the boiling wort minus 1.050, divided by 0.2.
Different styles of beer will require different bittering units and hop aroma components. For example, a Pilsner will generally have around 35 BU of hops and display a nice hop bouquet, implying at least one more addition of hops near the end of the boil.
Alpha acid units, or AAU, or Homebrew Bittering Units (HBU), are simply the bittering alpha rating of the hops multiplied by the ounces used. The value will be approximately 1/3 the bittering value in BU. Note that to get this amount of bitterness the hops must be added at the start of the boil. Using the BU equation presented above gives a more accurate indication of wort bitterness, especially if multiple hop adds are used. Homebrew Bittering Units are often used to describe the bitterness of canned kit extracts. The value given is what the equivalent alpha times amount of added hops would have been to get the same bitterness as is in the extract.
Remember to keep in mind the volume of the boil when determining the BU or HBU content needed for the style.
(Reference: "Calculating Hop Bitterness in Beer", by Jackie Rager. ZYMURGY Special Hops and Beer Issue, Volume 13 No. 4, Spring 1990. Also BREWING LAGER BEER by Greg Noonan.)
Water constitutes about 85 to 90% of beer. Water quality, mineral content, and microbiological contamination level is of critical importance to brewers.
Good tasting water, with few exceptions, will generally make good beer. Not recommended for brewing are waters softened with ion-exchange water softeners (removes calcium and magnesium but leaves in sodium chloride), sea water, rain water, brackish water, or water with a large iron content. Distilled water, unless modified by adding salts, is not recommended for brewing.
As it is desired to get the pH of the mash to the 5.2-5.4 range at mash-in, waters in the 7.0 pH range are preferred.
Mineral content is important. Most water, except distilled, will contain calcium, magnesium, and sodium ions, and bicarbonate, sulfate, and chloride ions. These will determine the "hardness" of the water, which is how "hard" it is to lather up with soap using the water.
Bicarbonate ions constitute "temporary" hardness, and will precipitate out with the calcium ions upon boiling.
Magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts), calcium sulfate (gypsum) and sodium chloride (table salt) all constitute permanent hardness. A degree of permanent hardness is desired in the water used in brewing. When the alkalinity of the water exceeds the hardness, the hardness is temporary, and the water will become strongly alkaline upon boiling. This is not desired for brewing. When the hardness exceeds the alkalinity, the hardness is permanent. This is the ideal brewing water, as it becomes slightly acidic when the temporary hardness is removed.
It is easy to add salts to water, but next to impossible to remove them. Certain beer styles, such as Burton ales and Dortmunder lagers, require water with large amounts of calcium, magnesium, and sulfates, while pilsners in the true Plzen style require very soft, salt-free water.
Adding food-grade Gypsum (calcium sulfate) to the water in the rate of one gram per gallon will increase the calcium ion content by 61.5 ppm, and the sulfate ion by 147.4 ppm. Gypsum gives a drier fuller flavor and accentuates bitterness.
Epsom salts are magnesium sulfate. Adding one gram per gallon increases magnesium ion by 37 ppm, and sulfate 145.3 ppm. Epsom salts increase bitterness when used excessively, and quantities should be reduced when gypsum is also added. Avoid Epsom salts when making pale lagers.
Calcium hydroxide is used to precipitate out bicarbonates. It should not exceed the ppm of alkalinity as calcium carbonate given in the water analysis. 1 gram per gallon precipitates out 264.2 ppm bicarbonates.
Calcium carbonate (food-grade chalk) can be added if it is desired to increase the carbonate content of water. One gram CaCO3 per gallon increases calcium ion by 106 ppm, and carbonate ion by 158.5 ppm.
Table salt (sodium chloride) accentuates bitterness and enhances flavor and fullness. Also promotes enzyme activity. One gram per gallon gives 104 ppm Na, 160.25 ppm Cl.
(Note - the above relationships are from BREWING LAGER BEER by Greg Noonan and his Water Workshop at the 1991 AHA Convention. See the REFERENCES section.)
A water analysis of your local water system, combined with the knowledge of the ions desired in the style you are making, will tell you what salts to add and the quantities.
Enterobacteria, such as Coliform and others, may be present in your water system. This is contamination waiting to happen in your beer, as bacterial contamination will spread rapidly at the temperatures you end up with when doing small-batch boils with cold water in the carboy. Coliform will give a rancid, cooked or spoiled vegetable odor and taste to beer. Other species will cause other undesired off flavors.
The best way to eliminate this is to boil all the water in the beer, either through a full-wort boil or boiling and chilling the add water when using small-batch extract boils (see my article "Boil Your Extract Water", ZYMURGY, Volume 10 No. 5, Winter 1987, page 41-43). Bacteria in the water, however, is generally not a problem when using water to rinse sterilant off equipment prior to contact with the beer. If you feel it is, set your water heater to 160 degrees or hotter (caution - this is hot enough to scald) and rinse only with water 160 degrees or hotter.
Chlorine is used to sanitize domestic water systems. It is added either as free chlorine (FAC) or as chlorine compounds that remain in the water.
Chlorine should be completely removed from brewing water. Chlorine present in the water, whether FAC (free dissolved chlorine gas) or from compounds, will form chlorophenols upon contact with organic matter (wort). Chlorophenols give a medicine-chest-like, phenolic flavor to beer and are greatly undesired.
CHARCOAL FILTRATION is the best method of removing all the chlorine and chlorine compounds in water. A simple tap-mounted unit is adequate. Boiling will remove the FAC chlorine, but not chlorophenols.
Fungi of the genus SACCHAROMYCES that have the ability to metabolize sugars into carbon dioxide and alcohol. Two species are used commonly in brewing: S. cerevisiae, or ale yeast; and S. uvarum (or S. carlsbergensis), or lager yeast. Other types are used in Belgian lambics and wheat beers.
Ale yeast (S. cerevisiae) is called top-fermenting yeast since it forms colonies that are supported by the surface tension of the wort and create a thick, rich yeast head. Ale yeasts generally work in the 55 to 70 degree range. They will ferment out the four monosaccharides glucose, fructose, mannose, and galactose, the disaccharides sucrose and maltose, xylulose, the trisaccharide maltotriose, and partially ferment the trisaccharide raffinose. They do not ferment melibiose or lactose.
Lager yeast (S. uvarum) is called bottom-fermenting yeast because the colonies don't have as great an ability to clump together, form a thinner, more tenuous head, and sediment out more readily to the bottom of the fermenter. Lager yeasts work best below 55 degrees. They ferment all the sugars that ale yeasts ferment, but also ferment the disaccharide melibiose and fully ferment the trisaccharide raffinose. They do not ferment lactose.
Lager yeasts have two sub-groups: Frohberg, or powdery yeasts (Staubhefen), that fail to clump and remain in suspension in the wort; and Saaz or break yeasts (Bruchhefen) that flocculate readily to the bottom of the fermenter. Frohberg yeasts are strong attenuators and ferment isomaltose as well as maltose. Saaz yeasts are weak fermenters that reduce the extract slowly and do not ferment isomaltose.
Belgian Lambics use an S. cerevisiae strain and three types not otherwise used in brewing: Brettanomyces bruxelliensis, B. lambicus, and Saccharomyces bayanus. South German wheat beers use a strain of Saccharomyces delbruckii, usually along with S. uvarum.
Yeast health is a function of six factors: temperature, wort pH, oxygen, nutrients, food, and overall health.
Temperatures that are best for the particular strain will vary. Unless the temperature is above 110 degrees or too cold for the strain, the yeast will continue to reproduce and function. The best temperature for the beer desired will depend on the strain
YEAST continued
used. Wort pH should be in the 5.0-5.5 range for optimal yeast growth, although this will drop during fermentation to about 4.5. Oxygen is needed in the wort for the yeast to function properly during the early phases of its life cycle. This is best done by shaking the carboy vigorously before pitching the yeast. However, oxygen reintroduced into the beer after the start of visible fermentation is undesired, and will result in off-flavors. At this time, the yeast is living anaerobically.
Nutrients are certain nitrogenous compounds and amino acids. These will be present in the wort, formed by the proteolytic enzymes during the protein rest for undermodified malts, and by the malt itself when fully modified. Trace elements are also present in the malt and from the hops.
Food for yeast is sugar, ideally a proper balance of the sugar varieties. Popular strains of beer yeast will not develop properly in a wort that has large amounts of corn sugar (glucose). This will retard proper enzyme development and cause other problems further in the life cycle. Large amounts of corn sugar in yeast starters or beer should be avoided.
Health is a critical factor in determining if the yeast will properly reproduce and produce the proper flavors in the beer. Weak yeast will not properly develop, and may flocculate prema- turely or not at all, and display characteristics totally at a variance from those predicted for the strain in use. When in doubt, a known healthy pure culture pitched to the proper amounts is the best choice.
Yeasts have three distinct phases of life in wort. They are: Respiration; Fermentation; and Sedimentation.
In the Respiration or Lag phase the yeast uses the oxygen in the wort to derive energy from both the wort and internal sources for reproduction. Internal energy stores of glycogen will be depleted as the yeast prepares for fermentation. The enzymes necessary for sugar metabolization are produced during this phase. These enzymes will be improperly developed if the wort has large amounts of corn sugar. Carbon dioxide is generated in this phase, as are flavor characteristics such as esters and diacetyls. No alcohol is produced during this phase. This phase will generally last for 24 hours after pitching or less.
In the Fermentation phase the yeast continues to reproduce, but no oxygen is used. The free oxygen will be scrubbed out by the CO2. During this phase the yeast reproduces to maintain an optimal
population throughout the wort. Here is where the sugars are converted to alcohols. The yeast will stay in suspension long enough to attenuate the wort to the desired degree. Often hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is produced during this stage, but it will normally be carried out of the wort by the CO2. Diacetyl and other fusel alcohols that are normal products of fermentation will be reduced or eliminated during this phase. This phase will include both Low Kraeusen and High Kraeusen, and the pH will drop to about 4.5-4.8, which signals the start of the sedimentation phase.
In the Sedimentation phase the yeast realizes that the energy stores and food are near depletion. The cells go dormant and settle to the bottom of the fermenter. Glycogen is produced, which is used to maintain the cell during dormancy, as well as to provide a new energy source for initial activity if roused into fresh wort.
Pitching rates should be on the order of .5 to .6 fluid ounce of slurry from culture per gallon of wort, or 2.5-3.0 ounces per five gallon batch. This is approximately 10-12 grams of roused packet yeast (in water prior to pitching) per five gallons.
Overpitching is not desired, as it will deplete the dissolved oxygen too soon and result in premature autolysis of the yeast, which will result in sulfury flavors and encourage the growth of certain bacteria.
HISTORY
Mitcherlich in 1841 discovered that yeast was necessary for fermentation, but it was not until Pasteur that the fermentation pathway that leads to alcohol production was discovered (zymase enzyme). Gabriel Sedlmayr and Anton Dreher in 1841 effectively started bottom fermentation, using mixed strains of predominantly bottom fermenting yeasts evolved by the Munich process of cold-conditioning beer (lagering) in caves, particularly over the summer. As S. uvarum is related to certain yeasts used in the wines that were made in Munich in those days, it is likely that their "contamination" of beers, combined with the cold-conditioning, resulted in their becoming dominant in the Munich beer yeast strains.
Single-cell yeasts were not isolated until 1883, by Emil Hanson of the Carlsberg Brewery in Copenhagen. Refrigerated fermentation of cold-tolerant yeasts began in the 1880s with von Linde and the advent of mechanical refrigeration.
The style descriptions in the following two sections are distilled from Michael Jackson's NEW WORLD GUIDE TO BEER (see REFERENCES). They only represent a "skeleton" of the rich detail and historical references and anecdotes presented by Jackson. The descriptions on the following pages are a good, quick reference to the stylistic types. Reading the Jackson book is necessary to fill in the gaps.
Most of the figures for starting gravity (SG), percent alcohol by volume (v/v), International Bittering Units (IBU) and color (degrees Lovibond or SRM) are taken from one or more of the following sources:
I've also included a second set of figures for IBU and color based on Gary Bauer's table on page 9 of the Special Grain Brewing Issue of ZYMURGY magazine ("The Influence of Raw Materials on the Production of All-Grain Beers" - see REFERENCES).
Note that there are minor variations in the figures associated with the styles depending on which source you use and where the source's author obtained the information. None of these varia- tions, however, are great enough to cause any significant difference in the basic makeup of the styles discussed.
LAGERS are produced using bottom-fermented lager yeast, or Saccharomyces uvarum (or carlsbergensis). This yeast works well at lower temperatures, generally between 45 and 55 degrees. This colder fermentation reduces or eliminates the production of esters and other flavor components, generally resulting in a cleaner tasting beer. Lagers are a relatively new beer style, generally about 200 years old.
ALES are produced using ale yeast, or top-fermenting Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This yeast works at warmer temperatures and ferments out faster than its lager counterpart. Fermentation byproducts such as fruity and estery tastes are usually evident and make up a significant part of the ale taste profile.
MIXED STYLES use one or more variations, such as fermentation with ale yeast at colder temperatures, use of ale and lager yeasts in combination, or use of special yeasts (such as the Saccharomyces delbruckii strain used in German wheat beers).
BELGIAN STYLES are generally ales, but with sufficient differences in process and taste profile to warrant their inclusion as a separate style section. Some Belgian styles, such as the Lambics, use a combination of wild yeasts and bacteria in their fermentation process.
PILSNER
CHARACTERISTICS: The most popular style in the world. Light, golden lager, with crisp, clean, taste and a floral-spicy-hoppy aroma. The best examples will be cold lagered for long periods (months) and made with the best German or Czech aroma hops such as Saaz, Hallertauer, Tettnanger, or Mittelfruh. Spellings of "Pilsner" or "Pilsener" are equally appropriate.
The two stylistically distinct variations of Pilsner are:
CZECH OR BOHEMIAN: Generally around 1044-1056 SG, 4.0-5.0% v/v, with about 30-45 BU of hops (Bauer: 26-35 BU). Light to medium body, the Bohemian pilsners will have a soft drinkability due to soft brewing water and a long appetizing dryness to the finish. Color between 3.0 and 5.0 degrees Lovibond.
GERMAN PILSNER is a variation made throughout Germany but especially in the North. These pilsners tend to be a bit drier and hoppier than their Bohemian counterparts. The use of harder water than available in Plzen also serves to accentuate the dryness and bitterness of the German Pilsner style. German pilsners are generally 1.044-1.050 (Bauer: 1047-1050), 4-5% v/v, 30-40 IBU of hops, and 2.5-4 degrees L.
HISTORY: First brewed in the town of Plzen in 1842, the original brewery still operates, making Pilsner Urquell ("ur" - original), the original Pilsner. Widely copied worldwide, partly due to the introduction at this time of clear glass drinking vessels, this style is what Americans mean when they say "beer". Plzen beer was the first to methodically use the new brewing techniques to produce a new, different beer style. Note that the bottom-fermenting yeast culture used in Pilsner Urquell was developed by trial-and-error - the first single-cell yeast culture was not isolated until 1883.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Pilsner Urquell (Pilzensky Prazdroj): Sweet, clean tasting Czech malted barley is lightly kilned and subjected to a triple-decoction mash in kettles over an open fire. Naturally soft water from the area gives a unique smoothness. Only Saaz hops from the Zatec district are used, and these are added three times during the boil. Start gravity around 1048 (12 degrees) with 35 bittering units. Fermented and lagered in pitch-lined oaken vessels, with lagering taking up to six months. Final color is 4.2 degrees L.
OTHER VARIATIONS: Just about every light "lager" made anywhere in the world (except Germany) is a derivative of this style.
AMERICAN LAGERS tend to be less hoppy (Bauer: 15-19 BU) and much lighter in body. Extensive use of corn and rice as adjuncts, and use of 6-row malt almost exclusively characterizes American pilsners. Little or no off flavors. Weaker in character than European versions, with light to medium body. Hop/malt aroma will be muted, clarity light golden (Bauer: 2.5-3.0 Lovibond) and strength (Bauer: 1040-1046 SG) in the 3.8-5.0% v/v range. An estery nose will dominate, as opposed to a floral hop aroma. DMS, or cooked corn, aroma is common in some Midwestern American lagers.
DRY LAGERS are strongly attenuated to remove almost all ferment- ables from the beer. A special yeast strain is used. These beers are similar to the "Dit" pilsner styles available in Germany, which are popular with diabetics due to their low residual sugar content.
MALT LIQUOR is a cheapened-corn sugar boosted version of American lager, designed for a cheap high. Greater than 5.5% v/v.
LITE LAGERS are a watered-down version with lower alcohol and less body (fewer dextrins and carbohydrates) sometimes made with special yeast strains that ferment out most of the body-giving dextrins. Bauer: 1038-1042 SG, 1.8-2.5 degrees Lovibond, 17-20 BU, with a neutral aroma and light body.
AMERICAN "ICE" BEERS are not to be confused with "Eisbocks". They are normal American lagers that are chilled to just below freezing, then filtered. This enables ice crystals to form around impurities that would normally be too small to be removed by the filter. Removing these impurities (mostly proteins and tannins) smooths out the taste and can also boost the alcohol content by increasing the ratio of alcohol to water.
PILSNER EXAMPLES: Pilsner Urquell (Bohemian), Becks and Jever (German), etc.
DORTMUNDER EXPORT
CHARACTERISTICS: Original to the city of Dortmund, which makes more beer than anyplace else in Germany. Export is a light all-malt lager, 4-6 Lovibond (Bauer: 3.3-5.0 Lovibond) with a SG of 1.048-1.056 (Bauer: 1050-1055) and around 4.8-6.0% v/v. This style is drier than a Munich pale and more full-bodied than a Pilsner, both with a lower hop rate of 23-29 BU (18-26 BU Bauer). It will have a maltiness but not be excessively sweet, and have a malty-dry finish. The "saltiness" of the water will be evident, and contribute to the overall taste profile. Medium body, with a flowery-malty aroma dominant. Bottom-fermented.
HISTORY: The characteristic style of Dortmund since about 1843. Widely marketed around Europe and the world, the Dortmunder style became known as "export" and distinguished itself as a unique style.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Standard German mashing/lagering techniques, but with less hops and more malt than the standard Pilsner styles. 3-6 months lagering. Note that Dortmund water is similar to the water found in Burton-on-Trent, England, in terms of its hardness and mineral salts. Water with a high permanent hardness and a large amount of total dissolved solids is necessary for accurately producing this style.
VARIATIONS: Few. Most variations are due to the many and varied breweries and are mostly minor variations well within the style.
EXAMPLES: Dortmunder Kronen Export, DAB Export, August Schell Export
VIENNA/OKTOBERFEST/MARZEN
CHARACTERISTICS: Medium to strong body, reddish amber to light brown color, bottom fermented, long lagering periods. Maltiness concentrated in the nose rather than the taste. A slight toasted maltiness and sweet spiciness from the Vienna or Munich malt will be evident, mostly in the bouquet. Some maltiness in the palate, but not overpowering, and the finish will be dry. Bittering is generally low, which accentuates the malt.
There are three styles that are popularly considered as "Marzens". These are true Marzens, Oktoberfest beers, and Vienna-style beers. Gary Bauer describes the differences between the Vienna, Oktoberfest, and Marzen styles as follows:
VIENNA: 1046-1050 SG, 8-10 L, 24-29 BU
OKTOBERFEST: 1055-1058 SG, 7-11 L, 18-23 BU
MARZEN: 1054-1058 SG, 9-14 L, 18-28 BU
The AHA style guidelines list the following parameters for these
styles:
VIENNA: 1048-1055 SG, 8-12 L, 22-28 BU
OKTOBERFEST / MARZEN: 1052-1064 AG, 7-14 L, 22-28 BU
VIENNAS are characterized by toasted malt aroma and flavor, but
low malt sweetness in the taste. Light to medium body. Low to
medium hop bitterness, with low hop aroma and flavor. No
fruitiness or esters, although a small amount of diacetyl is
acceptable.MARZENS have a slightly higher body, have the same toasted malt aroma and flavor, but are a bit sweeter. No fruity, estery, or diacetyl tastes.
OKTOBERFESTS are more full-bodied, and a bit darker than Marzens, with all of the other Marzen characteristics.
HISTORY: A style credited to Gabriel Sedlmayr in collaboration with Anton Dreher of Vienna, this beer evolved in Germany as a beer for use at Oktoberfest. Oktoberfest was a time when the last beer made in March (end of the brewing season) was consumed with a flourish to celebrate the beginning of the new brewing season in October. This beer was made strong and cold-lagered in caves throughout the summer. A bottom-fermenting beer made with malts roasted to a slightly higher degree than Pilsner malts, in the Vienna malting style, was a result. This style dates from around 1850, and became popular in both South Germany and Vienna simultaneously.
BREWING PROCEDURE: The main character of this style comes from the malt, which is roasted to such a degree as to give a reddish-gold color when brewed. Similar to British Pale Ale malt, Vienna malt will impart a malt sweetness to a brew but not an overpowering malt flavor, and will retain a dry finish. Light Munich malt may also be used to give this color, although it is roasted to a greater degree. Homebrewers can toast malt in the oven as an adjunct to give the proper reddish-golden color and roasted maltiness.
VARIATIONS: In Vienna the style has been diluted, with "Vienna" now meaning simply a golden-amber house lager with about 1048 SG and a low hopping rate. Note that these styles are popularly (but incorrectly) considered to be the somewhat the same, although there are definite differences between these styles as listed above.
EXAMPLES: Spaten Ur-Marzen Oktoberfest, Ambier (Vienna style), Dos Equis (Marzen style, made with adjuncts)
RAUCHBIER
CHARACTERISTICS: Like a single-malt Scotch whiskey, in a Rauch the barley malt is kilned over a smoky open fire. This gives a dominant, almost overpowering smoky taste to the brew. Bottom-fermented, lagered, with a SG of around 1048-1055 (1052 AHA) and an alcohol content of around 5% to 5.5% v/v (4.3-4.8 AHA) and a sweet smokiness in the taste and aroma. Color around 9-18 Lovibond (10-20 AHA) and bitterness around 25-35 BU (20-30 AHA). Another variation is a Rauchbock, which is a Bock brewed with smoked grains to Bock color and strength. Smoke dominates, along with a roasted maltiness in the flavor, and a very smoky, almost astringent aftertaste. Other variations exist.
HISTORY: This style dates back from the days when malts were kilned over open fires. Instead of using peat, as in Scotland, in the
Franconia area in Germany beechwood was used as the fuel. This is a specialty style that was once made over a large area and now almost exclusively in Bamberg.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Barley is malted and then kilned over a smoky, open fire that imparts the smoke of the beechwood fuel to the grain. In the mashing process the smoke flavor persists and dominates the taste of the beer. Other than the smoke, the beer is brewed in a normal fashion, and fermented with lager yeasts and stored as with other lagers.
VARIATIONS: Rauchenfels Steinbier is made using stones heated over a hot beechwood fire and then tossed into the brewkettle to heat and boil the brew. The stones impart the smoke, and are themselves coated with caramelized wort. They are then added to the brew in the lagering tanks, giving a smoky caramel flavor the final brew. This is another old style brewed as a specialty brew.
EXAMPLES: Schlenkerla Rauchbier, Kaiserdom Rauchbier, Rauchenfels Steinbier
CHARACTERISTICS: A malty brew with adequate hopping rate, generally with a starting gravity of 1052-1058 and 5% v/v. A Munich will have a medium to full body and a light hop character at 18-24 BU. A nutty, toasted chocolate-like malty sweetness will dominate. Munich Dunkel will display a color between 14 and 20 degrees Lovibond.
HISTORY: This is the first true "lager". Since about 1420, Munich brewers were storing barrels of winter brew in cold, constant temperature caves in the Alps. This was done since wild yeasts rendered brewing impossible between April and October. Eventually they unconsciously encouraged the bottom-fermenting strains of yeast through this cold storage (lagering) process. This was further developed in the 1830s by Gabriel Sedlmayr of the Spaten brewery, who set out to methodically use new scientific developments to brew clean lagers. (His initials appear on the Spaten label to this day).
BREWING PROCEDURE: Dark beer survived in Munich due to the high protein content of the malt. A triple-decoction mash with a protein rest is used in the brewing process. "Munich Style Malt" is more highly kilned than ordinary malted barley, but still retains its active enzymes and does not have a roasted taste. Munich malt used in homebrew will give malty sweetness and an reddish-amber color.
VARIATIONS: Most American dark lagers are loosely modeled after this style.
EXAMPLES: Spaten Dunkel Export, Michelob Dark (American version with adjuncts)
CHARACTERISTICS: The Munich Helles style is a golden colored lager with the emphasis on malt. It is less hoppy than a Pilsner and slightly lower in gravity. Munich Helles beers generally have medium body and medium malt sweetness. No fruitiness or esters are permitted. SGs range from 1044 to 1052, 4.5-5.5% v/v, 18-25 IBUs of hops, and 3-5 degrees Lovibond.
HISTORY: This style was the first light colored beer to be brewed in Munich. According to Jackson, Spaten claims to have first produced this style in 1894, and Paulaner claims to have popularized it in the 1920s and 1930s. It gradually supplanted the Munich Dunkel style as the most popular beer in Munich. Today, Munich Helles is what you will get in Munich if you ask for "a beer". The Helles style has also supplanted Oktoberfest beer at the annual Oktoberfest celebrations; almost everyone at Oktoberfest drinks Munich Helles (by the liter).
BREWING PROCEDURE: Standard German mashing/lagering techniques, but with less hops and less malt than the standard Pilsner styles. Two-row continental barley is mashed in a triple decoction mash, and then boiled with Noble hops. A clean-fermenting lager strain (all Munich breweries have their own strain for this style) is used. A multi-month lagering period finishes the process.
VARIATIONS: "Munich-style" is an appellation in Germany - in other words, only Munich can brew this style. Most variations are slight from brewery to brewery in Munich.
EXAMPLES: Spaten Mnchen Helles, Paulaner Original Mnchener Hell, etc.
CHARACTERISTICS: Schwarzbiers are dark brown to black lagers with medium body and medium malt sweetness, but with a strong malt aroma. Their main characteristic is the used of roasted malts such as chocolate and black patent; however, the roasted malts do not contribute bitterness or astringency. Fruity and estery aromas and tastes are not appropriate, although a small amount of diacetyl is acceptable. SGs range from 1044 to 1052, giving 3.8-5.0% v/v. Hop bitterness is 22-30 IBU, and color between 25 and 30 degrees (SRM). These beers are very popular in the area around Klmbach.
BREWING PROCEDURE: The addition of heavily roasted malt to the recipes for other typical malty German styles, such as Munich Helles, appears to be the method to make this style.
VARIATIONS: Schwarzbiers can vary considerably in terms of the dark malt content and malty sweetness. Many variations are seen in Germany.
EXAMPLES: Kulmbacher Monkshof Kloster Schwarzbier This style is rare in the US.
BOCK
BOCK: At least 6.25% V/V, dark brown, long lagering, displaying a malty smoothness offset by a gentle aroma hop characteristic and a start gravity of at least 1064. A seasonal brew, generally served during weather change times (spring, autumn). Maltiness is balanced by good attenuation and hoppy-dry finish. Not especially sweet, but well balanced. Low to moderate hopping rates at 24-36 BU give a good hop balance without excessive bitterness. Bottom fermented. Color 18-25 Lovi- bond.
DOPPLEBOCK: At least 7.5% v/v (1074 SG), and 29-40 BU of hops. Generally a "super bock", with more of everything, including a longer lagering time. Dopplebocks can have flavors ranging from the "round, to the profound, to the enveloping", as Michael Jackson puts it. Rich, dark, heavy, smooth, malty would all be terms used to describe a Dopplebock. Bottom-fermented. Color 22-30 Lovibond.
MAIBOCK: A lighter version of a Bock, generally tawny golden to amber in color, but retaining the strength and a similar flavor to regular bocks. Color around 4-9 Lovibond.
WEIZENBOCK: A bock made with wheat malt in varying proportions, up to 50-60%. Generally slightly fruitier in the aroma and palate due to the wheat content. 1044-1065 SG, color about 18-25 Lovibond.
HISTORY: Einbeck is credited with developing this style, which was brewed to a high gravity so that it would travel well - it was traded all over Europe. This style was made famous as the "beer of Martin Luther", and his picture was on the label of one brand of Einbeck bock exported to the US in the early 1900s. Einbeck was a commercial hub during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, centering around the beer trade. "Bock" was originally made as a "contract brew" by the citizens, who were visited by the brewmaster who supplied them with malt and hops, and then helped them brew. The citizens stored and then sold the beer. The original Bock was likely a Weizenbock, made with malted wheat, and using top-fermenting yeasts, around 1200.
Dopplebock originated as a monks' beer, or "liquid bread", around 1634, brewed by the monks of St. Francis of Paula. This dopplebock was named Paulaner Salvator in honor of the Savior. The monastery became the Paulaner Brewery and still makes Salvator today. In deference to tradition, the many other breweries making dopplebocks still use the -ator suffix in the name of their brews.
Maibock is traditionally used to signify the end of winter in Munich at the Hofbrauhaus, with the Prime Minister of Bavaria and the Mayor of Munich taking part in a keg tapping ceremony. Eisbock is made by taking advantage of the fact that water freezes before alcohol. By this method extremely high alcoholic content bocks can be made (like applejack). Generally made as strong as possible before boosting by freezing out the water. Up to 10-12% v/v.
VARIATIONS: Dopplebock, Maibock, Weizenbock, Eisbock
BREWING PROCEDURE: Generally various types of malt are used, and a fairly low hopping rate for the start gravity. Dark malts impart a chocolaty-smooth character without the harsh bite of burnt malts. A burnt-malt taste is totally inappropriate in any bock. The best Hallertauer or similar German aroma hops are used. Note that the starting gravity must be 1064 for a true Bock, and 1072 for a Dopplebock. Long lagering periods, from a few months to a year or more give the characteristic smoothness.
EXAMPLES: BOCK: Kessler Bock; DOPPLEBOCK: Celebrator; EISBOCK: Kulmbacher Reichelbrau "Bavarian Frozen"
CHARACTERISTICS: An American style (the only indigenous one) native to the San Francisco area. Uses a clean-fermenting lager yeast at top-fermenting temperatures (60-70 degrees). Characterized by a taste that combines the roundness of a lager with the fruitiness of an ale. Anchor Steam Beer is the example, and it is 1050 SG, 4.6% v/v, 40 BU, 5 degrees Lovibond, and is warm-conditioned, kraeusened, and bottle-conditioned. Taste is full, slightly fruity, with plenty of hop character and aroma.
Note that the term "Steam Beer" has been copyrighted as a trademark of the Anchor Brewing Company, San Francisco, CA.
HISTORY: Lagers were easier to produce in the areas of the US that had distinctive winters. In San Francisco, with its constant temperature, the style developed using lager yeast at ale temperatures in the mid-1800s, at the gold-rush time. The original term "steam" comes either from the intense amount of CO2 released from kegs when tapped, or from the equipment used in the brewery.
BREWING PROCEDURE: 2-row Klages malt, three-step mash, Northern Brewer hops (only whole leaf hops are used), and crystal malt. Lager yeast is used, and fermentation takes place in a shallow vessel. Warm conditioning, Kraeusening, and bottle conditioned. Dated for freshness.
VARIATIONS: None commercially produced at the present time.
EXAMPLE: Anchor Steam Beer
CHARACTERISTICS: This is a hybrid style made either by the blending of an ale and a lager, or by a fermentation with a mix of the two yeast strains. Taste will be smooth, with a hint of ale fruitiness. Start gravity in the 1040-1046 range, color 2-3.5 Lovibond, 15-18 BU hops, with a fine hop aroma and medium body (Bauer).
HISTORY: Developed in the 20th century, cream ale is a mix of ale and lager.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Lager and ale mixed after fermentation, allowed to lager or cold-age together. Another variation is to use two strains in the primary, but fermenting around 55 degrees. All are cold-lagered and highly filtered.
EXAMPLES: Genesee Cream Ale, Utica Club Cream Ale, Little Kings Cream Ale
CHARACTERISTICS: South German Weizenbier is a golden, light colored brew (2.5-4 degrees Lovibond) brewed with at least 50% malted wheat in the mash, with a top-fermenting yeast that yields the characteristic clove flavor from the phenol 4-vinyl guaiacol. Generally these beers are robustly carbonated, and some served with yeast sediment in the bottle (mit Hefe). Start gravities are around 1.048-1.055 and 5.0-5.5% v/v. Low hopping rates around 12-20 BU accentuate the wheat/clove/fruity characteristics. Sometimes cold lagered after an additional dosage of lager yeast to aid clarification. Noted for a large, frothy head, which is why it is served in the characteristic 24-oz. tall vase-shaped glass. The world's best "lawnmower beer". Clean, dry, fruity with a crisp finish would best describe the taste. Blackcurrant, green apples, and plums are other flavors present in some Weizens.
HISTORY: Wheat beers have been brewed for ages. Mixes of malt and wheat were a natural where both were grown. Barley is necessary to convert the starches in the wheat (mash). The Weihenstephan brewery north of Munich dates back to 1040 and has been brewing wheat beers regularly since this time.
BREWING PROCEDURE: A true wheat beer will have at least 50% malted wheat and be fermented with Saccharomyces delbruckii, either in a pure strain by itself or mixed with lager strains of Saccharomyces uvarum. Often the S. delbrukii strain is used for the primary fermentation, at temperatures between 60 and 72 degrees, with a dosage of bottom-fermenting yeast added and a lagering period performed to aid in clarification. Sometimes both strains are mixed in the primary. The techniques are as varied as the breweries that make Weizen. The S. delbrukii strain is a top-fermenting strain, which makes Weizen a top-fermenting beer. Its claim to fame is the production of the phenol 4-vinyl guaiacol, the source of the clove taste and aroma so necessary to this style. High-temperature fermentation also gives other fruity tastes that are desirable in this style.
In the mash the barley malt used with the wheat must have a high enzyme content since wheat malt is low in enzymes. The barley enzymes must do double duty to convert the wheat starches into fermentable sugars. A low-temperature saccharification rest (145-150 degrees) is often used to ensure complete conversion.
VARIATIONS: Some variations include WEIZENBOCK/DUNKEL WEIZEN, a strong dark version using lots of chocolate and crystal malt, and WEIZEN MIT-HEFE, bottle-conditioned with bottle sediment like an homebrew. AMERICAN WHEAT is a wheat beer made with 40-60% malted wheat, but fermented with an standard ale yeast and thus lacking the clove aroma and taste characteristic of the German wheats.
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Some American Wheats are highly hopped. This is a recent style made popular by American microbreweries and home brewers.
EXAMPLES: Pinkus Weizen, Weihenstephan Hefe-Weizen, Anchor Wheat (American wheat)
CHARACTERISTICS: Alt is the characteristic style of Dusseldorf, and, as the name implies, means "old". This is true top-fermenting beer in the style of a British ale. Copper color (9-14 Lovibond), light to medium body, with lots of hop character (32-50 BU; AHA: 25-35 BU), and a SG of around 1.048 and around 4.5-5.0% v/v. An all-malt mash and cold-conditioning (lagering at up to 46 degrees) makes for a cleaner beer with less fruity/estery tastes than British ales. Hops and hopping techniques will produce a fragrance and bitterness without the typical acidity of British ales.
HISTORY: This was likely the most common style in the centuries before isolation of the bottom-fermenting yeast strains in Germany. This is one of the last true ale styles in a nation of bottom-fermented beers. This style is associated with the North of Germany, especially Dusseldorf and environs.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Standard ale techniques, with lots of boiling and finish hops, are combined with a period of cold lagering. Yeast strains used will display a tendency to clear at low storage temperatures and not display excessively fruity/estery characteristics.
VARIATIONS: Many. A large number of "brewpubs" in the northern regions of Germany make variations on this style, including some that incorporate large amounts of wheat malt. This style is rare in the USA.
EXAMPLES: Schlosser Alt, Dusser Alt.
CHARACTERISTICS: Kolsch is the characteristic style of Cologne, and by law can only be brewed there. This is a clean, golden, top-fermented beer with a lower hop content and clean, crisp taste with a delicate fruitiness. A definite, but slight, fruity-winey bouquet is sought in this style, as is a gentle flowery hop dryness in the finish. Starting SG is around 1.046-1.048, 5.0 v/v, with a hopping rate of about 20-25 BU, and a clear, pale appearance (2.5-4.0 Lovibond). Some examples contain small proportions of malted wheat (10-20%) to accentuate the fruitiness. This style is rare in the USA.
HISTORY: Made only in Cologne and surroundings. Kolsch has probably been made since the early 1800s and the clear-beer trend that developed at this time.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Pure, clean-fermenting ale yeast strains, low-end ale fermentation temperatures and cold-aging are coupled with the extremely soft waters of Cologne to produce this delicate tasting aperitif-style ale. Hopping rates assure that the hop flavor and bitterness will not dominate, but give a clean, dry finish.
VARIATIONS: Some brewers use wheat malt in small proportions (10-20%).
EXAMPLES: Kuppers Kolsch
CHARACTERISTICS: The "White Beer" of Berlin, the "Champagne of the North", Berliner Weisse is a low-gravity, low-hopped, lactic-fermented wheat beer characteristic to Berlin. SG is about 1.030-1.032, near 3% v/v, with a light color around 1.5-3 Lovibond. The addition of about 15 to 30% wheat (and sometimes up to 60%) makes this a wheat beer, although the "Weisse" term means "white", and refers to its appearance. Central to the taste is a lactic sourness not found in other beers. Often served with a dash of raspberry syrup or woodruff extract, Berliner Weisse is a light, thirst quenching refresher. Often hard to find in the USA.
HISTORY: Traditionally, Berliner Weisse has been served for more than 250 years, and was termed the "Champagne of the North" by Napoleon. In the 1890s Max Delbruck isolated the lactobacillus culture responsible for the clean, crisp sourness characteristic of the beer, although this style was brewed with cultivated strains of bacillus/yeast for years before this. This style is another holdover from the older, pre-scientific methods of brewing.
BREWING PROCEDURE: The characteristics of Berliner Weisse are a low-gravity mash with about 25%-30% malted wheat, almost no bittering hops (about 4 or 5 BU, since hop resins inhibit the L. delbruckii thermophilic bacteria strain), hops added to the aging tanks for hop flavor rather than bitterness, and, most importantly, a top-fermenting yeast culture that includes the bacillus Lactobacillus delbruckii for the characteristic sourness. Generally this beer is fermented at higher temperatures for three days, with some older wort added. It is then warm-aged for a year at temperatures between 59 and 77 degrees F. It is then kraeusened with fresh wort, and bottle conditioned at least 64 degrees for two weeks. Devotees of the style will age their bottles at least a year after this, to bring about a better flavor balance.
VARIATIONS: A similar brew is made in the town of Bremen, but has more hop content and a drier taste.
EXAMPLES: Berliner Kindl Weisse, Schultheiss Berliner Weisse
CHARACTERISTICS: Despite the name, a Pale Ale is a tawny, golden, coppery colored (8-14 degrees Lovibond) hoppy ale. This style is generously hopped (25-45+BU) and can range from 1045 to over 1070 SG (4.5% to 7% v/v). Considerable variations exist in the style. The aroma will be hoppy-fruity-malty, with the taste displaying a clean fruitiness, dash of malt character, some bitterness, and a dry-tasting hop finish. This style is often dry hopped, giving a pleasant hoppy nose, but usually not enough to overpower the fruity aromas. Water characteristically high in gypsum and epsom salts gives good dryness and hop assertiveness. Medium body.
INDIA PALE ALE is a pale ale that was brewed generally to a higher gravity and higher hopping rate to enable it to mature at sea while being delivered to India. Generally a British IPA will be bittered in the 40-50 BU range, with an SG of at least 1050, and be more tawny-golden in color. It will have more bitterness in the palate, and generally be extensively dry-hopped for a strong hop aroma. Medium body.
HISTORY: This is the world's first clear beer. Generally developed in the early 1800s around Burton-on-Trent, where the large amounts of salts and dissolved solids in the water gave a distinctive dry, crisp taste to the ales. The Alsopp Brewery developed the first of the modern pale ales in 1822. The Bass brewery, now the largest in Britain, started by making dark ales in 1777, then began making pale ales in the 1800s. The red triangle symbol on the Bass Ale label may be the world's first copyrighted trademark.
A particular style of fermentation was developed in Burton, using a cask-blowout system called the Burton Union. This system allows the fermenting wort to blow out into a trough, and then return to the wood fermenting cask. This permitted the yeast strains to evolve in a distinctive manner to give a characteristic, pleasant fruitiness. Only the Marstons Brewery still makes pale ale in this manner.
Another fermentation style was developed in Tadcaster. This is the use of open square slate fermenters, and is still used by the Samuel Smith brewery. This also imparts a distinctive "house character" to the brews, in this case a hint of butterscotch.
Pale Ale is served best from a wooden cask, where it is naturally carbonated ("cask conditioned") and served at cellar temperature (55 degrees F). This results in a lightly-carbonated brew with an overpowering richness and variety of flavor. The preservation of cask-conditioned ale ("Real Ale") by the CAMRA group (Campaign for Real Ale) helped start the present microbrewery/brewpub revolution worldwide.
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BREWING PROCEDURE: Generally a single-step infusion mash using fully- modified malts kilned to a higher degree than pilsner malts. Bitterness and aroma comes from Kent Goldings or Fuggles hops, with the emphasis on hop aroma. Some varieties, especially IPAs, are
warm-conditioned for a few weeks at around 55 degrees F. Hops added at this time, called "dry hopping", impart a beautifully intense floral hop aroma without additional bitterness. Another dosage of yeast may be needed if cask-conditioned or bottle-conditioned.
VARIATIONS: India Pale Ale is the "super premium" Pale Ale, generally with more of everything than a regular Pale Ale. Considerable variations exist in the style with respect to bittering, hop rates, color, etc., although the main characteristics will be a pleasantly fruity aroma and taste, good hop aroma, and dry, clean finish.
EXAMPLES: Worthington White Shield, Sierra Nevada Pale Ale, Bass Ale
CHARACTERISTICS: This is the national drink of England. A bitter is generally a cask-conditioned golden to tawny-amber colored ale with a medium body and a good hopping rate. This beer is meant to be consumed as a sociable brew in the pub ("session beer"). Colors generally range from about 7 to 14 degrees Lovibond, while gravities generally fall into three ranges:
ORDINARY BITTER (or just "BITTER") at 1035-1040
BEST or SPECIAL BITTER at 1040-1046
EXTRA SPECIAL or STRONG BITTER at 1.046-1.055.
The primary taste characteristics are a dryness derived from the hop emphasis and an acidity. Examples of this style may be heavily hopped, dry hopped, or even tend to lack hop aroma. Some may be heavily bitter, others not nearly so. The taste of hops is usually evident, especially as sort of vegetable-herby note deep in the taste.
This style is almost exclusively served on draft in England, and the best examples come from cask-conditioned wooden kegs served at cellar temperatures (55 degrees). The few bottle versions are primarily aimed at the export markets.
The style varies in different parts of England. In London and the Southeast it will be dry, hoppy, and hop aromatic (Young's Special London Ale). In the East the taste is tart-fruity (Abbot Ale). In the North it's creamy and nutty (Sam Smith's Old Brewery Bitter). In the Northwest the taste is dry. In the Midlands the bitters are fruity and elegant with lots of hop character (Ind Coope Burton Ale). Welsh examples are sweet and malty. The Western version is soft and fruity (Royal Oak).
HISTORY: This style evolved from Porter's evolution into a sweet, mild ale, where the clear version was termed "bitter" as a contrast. From about the mid-19th century. Formal acceptance of "bitter" as a distinct style is fairly recent.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Pale Ale malt, infusion mash, with lots of Kent Goldings hops in the kettle boil, and bottom-fermenting yeast strains make this style. Some varieties may be dry-hopped, but extensive hop aroma is not always present in a bitter. This style is best if enjoyed at the peak of freshness without any significant aging period.
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VARIATIONS: Mostly in hop strength, aroma, and fruitiness as ex- plained above. There is some stylistic overlap with the Mild and Pale Ale styles in some examples.
EXAMPLES: Sam Smith's Old Brewery Bitter, Royal Oak, Ind Coope Burton Ale, Young's Special London Ale.
CHARACTERISTICS: Scotch Ale as a style embraces a variety of ales of differing colors and strengths. However the main characteristic of all Scotch ales will be a full body and a sweet malty taste. These ales will not be heavily hopped as a rule, and not as completely attenuated as the typical spectrum of British ales. Gravities are defined by an old scale known as the "schilling" system, which was either used to define the tax rate or the price of the ale in times past. The range is from 60/ to 90/, generally corresponding to the range from Mild, through the Bitters, to Old Ale in England. Hop bitterness will be in the 10-20 BU range, depending on the initial SG strength.
60/ - sometimes known as a "light", it will usually be dark, but be light in SG and gravity (1030-1033), with about 3-3.5% v/v. Hopping rates will be very low, generally in the 10-12 BU range. Color will probably be in the 15-25 degree range.
70/ - known as a "heavy", it will be the equivalent of an ordi- nary bitter, with around 1035-1042 SG and 3.5-4.0% v/v range. Generally lighter but tawny (estimated degree around 10-14).
80/ - known as an "extra", this is the counterpart to a special or extra special bitter. 1040-1050 SG range, around 4.5-5.0% v/v.,
with a full color (probably in the 16-18 degree range).
90/ - known as a "wee heavy" if presented in a small "nip" bottle. This is the Old Ale equivalent. This will be in the 1065 and up SG range, around 7-10 % v/v.
HISTORY: Scotland has always had a brewing tradition, one that grew hand-in-hand with the whiskey industry that shares the basic material (barley) and some of the procedures (malting, mashing). The characteristic maltiness of Scotch ales was a result of this intertwining of the two industries. Brewed with the same malts, some Scotch ales actually have a malty taste similar to that of the better single-malt Scotch whiskeys. Today some of the older breweries (such as Caledonian and Tranquair House) follow traditional methods in brewing their ales.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Pale ale malt, infusion mashed, forms the basis for this style. Caramel and chocolate malts, combined with low hopping rates, serve to define the flavor profile. Reduced wort attenuation, to leave residual sweetness, will define the yeast strains used and the fermentation procedure.
VARIATIONS: Mostly color variations within the designations.
EXAMPLES: MacAndrew's, Belhaven, Tranquair House, McEwan's
CHARACTERISTICS: A strong ale in the 1050-1080 range that is usually darker in color and may or may not be aged for any considerable length of time. The flavor will be rich and strong, but not have as much intensity or winey-spirity warmth as a barley wine. Color will be 38-45 degrees Lovibond, with around 20-30 BU, and alcohol will be in the 5.5-7% v/v range. Fruity-maltiness, and a luscious richness and dryness are also present in this style. Very full bodied.
HISTORY: This style was originally made in a similar fashion to the Belgian Rodenbach - a strong beer, aged in unlined oaken vats, is blended with a new, weaker beer and then bottle-conditioned. However, the term today is used only to loosely define a strong ale in the 5-7% range that may or may not be aged in oak for any period of time. Only one beer is still made the original way - Green King "Strong Suffolk". Historically, the high strength was most likely to help preserve the beer.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Today's old ale is most likely made with large quantities of Pale Ale malt and infusion mashed. Aging depends on the brewer, but will be generally a higher-temperature aging for a few weeks to months.
VARIATIONS: This style is very close to a Barley Wine, and some examples would probably fit into both categories.
EXAMPLES: Old Peculier, Young's Winter Warmer
CHARACTERISTICS: A British brewer's strongest brew. May be light or dark (the "light" will be a tawny-golden, deep amber). Generally characterized by long periods of maturation, usually in tanks but sometimes in the bottle. SG will be in the vicinity of 1.075-1125, and alcohol can go from around 7.5% to as high as 12.5% v/v. Color will be in the 14-18 degree range for the lighter versions, and as high as 37 degrees for the darker. Hopping rates will be in the 30- 40 BU range.
Flavors will be complex, with fruity-winey notes dominating, along with a warming effect from the high alcohol. A good barley wine will display a full body with a very smooth flavor from the aging, and smooth, warming finish from the alcohol.
HISTORY: As a brewery's strongest beer, barley wine is brewed as an aperitif and specialty beer. This style probably dates back centuries, and may have been started by brewing to high gravities for traveling long distances. High gravity beers, aged for long periods, may have been part of the Flanders influence.
BREWING PROCEDURE: High gravity wort, consisting of pale ale malts and additions including crystal and chocolate, is fermented with a yeast strain that can stand up to the high alcohol content. Often two or more yeasts are used, with dosages added as the beer matures or as one strain becomes overwhelmed by the alcohol. Some varieties are designed to be aged in the bottle.
VARIATIONS: Light and dark versions exist.
EXAMPLES: Thomas Hardy's Ale (bottle-conditioned, bottle-aged, light amber color); Old Nick (dark); The Bishop's Tipple (amber); Watney's Stingo (dark).
CHARACTERISTICS: Mild is a low-gravity top-fermenting brew characterized by low hopping rates (compared to a Bitter) and the accent on maltiness and fruitiness. Color can be golden-coppery-amber to very dark (light: 10-16 degrees; dark: 23-34 degrees). Gravities are in the range 1030-1040, with around 2.5%-3.0% v/v. Bitterness will range from 10-20 for the lighter versions, and between 15 and 25 for the darker ones. Chocolate malt character will be evident in the darker Milds. The malty sweetness comes from a reduced wort attenuation. Light to medium body.
HISTORY: Mild most likely evolved from Porter, as a lighter, sweeter, less alcoholic version. It can be consumed in large quantities without problems, and its low hop bitterness makes it very thirst quenching. It has fallen out of popularity in recent times.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Pale Ale malts, infusion mashed. Darker versions will have chocolate malt added. Less hops in the boil, and low hop aroma are characteristics. Not highly attenuated. No aging or dry- hopping.
VARIATIONS: Light and dark versions.
EXAMPLES: Highgate Mild
BROWN ALE
CHARACTERISTICS: Extensive use of crystal malt gives a caramelly-toffee sweetness to this style. This "dessert-like" sweetness is Brown Ale's characteristic flavor. This style differs in the north and south of England. In the North it is generally around 1040-1050 SG, 4.5-5%, and around 9-14 degrees in color. In the South it will be lighter (1030-1040 SG), much darker (20-50 degrees), and lower alcohol (3.0-3.5%). The northern examples will be a bit drier than the sweet southern versions. Hopping rates will be low, in any case, in the 8-15 BU range. Medium bodied.
HISTORY: Like Porter, Brown Ale was a London style. London's water, high in carbonates and sodium chloride, helped to produce good sweet, full, luscious dark brews. This style predates Porter, and probably had been brewed for centuries before this.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Pale ale malts, infusion mash, with lots of crystal malt (probably up to 20%) are characteristic. Darker crystal and brown malts will also be used in the Southern versions of this style. Top-fermented.
VARIATIONS: NORTHERN STYLE, lighter and stronger; Southern Style, darker and less alcoholic.
TEXAS (or AMERICAN) BROWN, an American style, is characterized by high hopping rates and higher gravities. This gives 3-5% alcohol content and very evident hop bitterness, flavor and aroma. SG around 1035-1052.
EXAMPLES: North: Newcastle Brown Ale; South: Mann's Brown Ale
CHARACTERISTICS: Today's Porter style is a dark, almost black ale with coffee-ish and fruity tastes. A wide variation in flavors accompanies this style. SGs can range from 1040-1060, 4.5-6.7% v/v, and can be both top and bottom-fermented, and sweet to mild to bitter. However, the more classic contemporary versions will be between 1040 and 1050, around 4.5-5.0% v/v, and top-fermented. A dry flavor predominates from full wort attenuation, and the dark malt flavor is from roasted malts, although not as overpowering as with a Stout. Bitterness is in a balance and not as intense as a Stout, and not enough to mask the fruity flavors. Generally the BU rating will be around 16-25, with the color 26-36 degrees Lovibond, a medium body, and a clean, quick finish.
HISTORY: This is a formerly extinct style that only recently has been resurrected. Originally dating from the early 1700s, Porter evolved from a habit drinkers during this period had of mixing the available beers at the pub - mostly mild ale, pale ale, and old ale, a combination known as an "entire". Ralph Harwood, in 1722, first brewed an "entire" as a single brew at his brewpub in Shoreditch. Samuel Whitbread also started out in Shoreditch with porter in 1742.
The name "porter" has two possible origins. The first one has to do with the call made by the draymen delivering the beer to the pubs - "Porter!" - since at this time large central breweries were a novelty and beer deliveries an event. The second possible origin is due to the fact that the style was preferred by the porters in London's produce markets.
The most likely original gravity for porter was in the 1070 SG range. As stouts became more popular, they generally usurped this stylistic niche. The last of the original porters was produced by Guinness and served in Belfast in 1973. This consisted of a mixer draft beer to be mixed with draft Guinness and thus make porter.
Today, porter is back due to the renaissance of interest in beer styles. As a medium-body dark ale in the 1040-1050 range, with about 4.5-5.0% v/v and a hop rate of about 20 BU, porter is enjoying a resurgence, especially among microbreweries and brew pubs.
BREWING PROCEDURE: The addition of chocolate and black malts to a base mash of pale ale malt gives the characteristic color and taste. This is combined with the standard British ale style infusion mash using fully-modified malts. Roasted nonmalted barley is not used. Top-fermenting strains are used that give good attenuation. No long aging or maturing is usually done.
VARIATIONS: Porter made with lager yeast (bottom fermenting) and cold-fermented and lagered is the most obvious variation. Significant variations in bitterness/hop balance/sweetness are found in this style.
EXAMPLES: Anchor Porter, Boulder Porter, Pottsville Porter (lager)
CHARACTERISTICS: There are three common styles of Stouts, but they have numerous underlying characteristics. They will all be dark black or opaque, have the characteristic flavor of darkly roasted barley, both malted and nonmalted, and will display little or no hop aroma in the bouquet (the bouquet of a Stout will always have roasted malt in it). They will all be very full bodied. The three primary substyles are Dry Stout, Sweet Stout, and Imperial Stout.
CLASSIC DRY STOUT is the best known style, as this is the style of Guinness and of Irish stouts in general. This style will be coal black and opaque in color (35-50+ degrees), 1038 to 1048 in SG, 3.5-5% v/v, and have lots of hop bitterness (30-40 BU). Little or no hop aroma. The taste will be a combination of the roasted bitterness of the large number of dark malts used, a chocolaty-coffee taste (partly from the roasted nonmalted barley), and a bitterness from the hops. This is the Irish stout style, and the Irish national drink. FOREIGN STYLE stout, as listed by some sources (such as the AHA) is basically a stronger version of a Dry Stout, with a higher SG (1052 to 1072) and higher hop rate (30-60 BU).
SWEET STOUT is the English style. Sometimes called "Milk Stout", sweet stout is essentially a very sweet black ale made with large amounts of roasted malts. The range in alcohol, SG, and color is generally the same as with Dry Stouts (color toward the lighter end), but the bitterness will be low (12-18 BU). The sweetness comes from the addition of lactose (milk sugar), and sometimes sucrose (table sugar), after which the bottle will be pasteurized. Low attenuation will also add to sweetness. Variations include Oatmeal Stout and Oyster Stout.
IMPERIAL STOUT, sometimes known as Russian Stout, is a full-bodied, extremely rich, stronger version generally with a predominant burnt- currant and vinous aroma coming from a combination of fermentation esters and the roasted malts. Sgs will be in the range 1065-1080, with around 7 to 10.5% v/v. Hopping rates will be high, in the 29- 40 BU range, and colors in the 18-30 degree Lovibond range.
HISTORY: Stouts in general seem to have evolved in England at an early date (back in the days when all beers were dark), and then spread to Ireland, where the dry style became the national drink.
Note that Guinness is only 1038-1043 SG, around 4.5% v/v in Ireland. This is to stay within a specific tax band and remain "session", or large-consumption brews. Guinness elsewhere is in the 1048 - 5% v/v range (as in the USA), and can reach the 1070s
STOUT continued
in the tropics (where 5% soured and pasteurized stout is added to offset the richness).
Imperial stout has a more definite origin. From about the 1780s, English porters, and later stouts, were exported from Britain to the Baltic countries and Russia, where they were used as a winter warmer. To survive the long sea voyage they were brewed strong and highly hopped, so that they would mature at sea in the same fashion as an IPA. As one British shipper supplied the Imperial Czarist Court, the style became known as "Imperial" stout. To this day, in the Baltic countries the terms "porter" and "stout" generally refer to brews of this style.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Pale ale malts, infusion mash. The character of a Stout will come through the addition of chocolate malt, black patent malt, and roasted nonmalted black barley. Often, ordinary nonmalted barley (such as flaked barley) is added to increase body and head retention. Crystal malt, especially the higher color versions, will also be used in some stouts, particularly the sweet and Imperial styles. Yeast attenuation will vary with the style (less for sweet stout).
VARIATIONS: Mostly gravity and slight hopping rate/color varia- tions within the three styles. Oatmeal Stout and Oyster Stout are two recognized variations on Sweet Stout. Oatmeal Stout is made using a large percentage of oatmeal in the mash. Oyster Stout is made using essence of oyster, and was, until recently, a specialty made only on the Isle of Man. It is no longer made in Britain.
EXAMPLES: DRY: Guinness, Beamish; SWEET: Mackeson, Sam Smith's Oatmeal Stout; IMPERIAL: Grant's, Sam Smith's
BI RE DE GARDE
CHARACTERISTICS: A French beer style closely associated with the region around Lille in the northwest, near the Belgian border. Classic Bire de Garde is a top-fermented beer of medium to high gravity, made to be "laid down." This style has similarities to the English "Old Ale," but with less hop bitterness and a slightly lighter appearance. The color is usually deep golden, deep copper or light brown. Malt dominates in a medium to high malty flavor profile. Body is light to medium, with medium hop bitterness and light to medium hop flavor and aroma. Some fruitiness and esteriness can be found, and some examples have an earthy, cellar-like musty aroma. Lager yeast may sometimes be used. Traditionally, a beer that improves with some aging. Many examples are bottle-conditioned and put up in champagne-style bottles with corks. SGs in the range 1060-1080, 4.5-8.0% v/v, 25-30 IBU of hops, 8-12 degrees Lovibond.
BREWING PROCEDURE: These are all-malt beers. Several different malts (up to three or more) are used. Two-row Continental malt and crystal malt are usually always used. Vienna or Munich malt is used in some brands. Continental hop varieties round out the profile. Traditional Bires de Garde are brewed with true top-fermenting yeast and are bottle-conditioned
VARIATIONS: Some Bires de Garde are brewed with lager yeast, most notably Lutc Bire de Paris, but still retain an ale-like character. Other variations include pasteurized and force-carbonated versions.
EXAMPLES: Traditional: La Choulette from Bouchain ("citric fruitiness with hoppy dryness" - Jackson); Jenlain from Duyck ("deep amber color, fruity nose and hints of licorice in its long finish" - Jackson); St Lonard from the Facon brewery in Pas de Calais (hoppy - available in the USA). Bottom-fermented version: Lutc Bire de Paris from Enfants de Gayant brewery (malty).
CHARACTERISTICS: Lambics are beers made with 30-40% unmalted wheat and fermented with the wild yeasts of the Senne region to the west of Brussels, in Belgium. They are unique in the world. Tart, lactic, vinous, and complex, they are a hybrid - a beer made with winemaking techniques.
There are five major styles of lambic beers: Lambic, Gueuze, Kriek Lambic, Framboise Lambic, and Faro. All are generally in the 1048-1052 SG range, with about 4.5-5.5 percent v/v. Krieks and Framboisen will be slightly higher. These beers are aged to varying degrees, and most are blended.
LAMBIC refers to an straight, spontaneously fermented wheat beer, with a dry, sour character and a pleasant fruity complexity. This style will have no or very little carbonation, and will usually be available only on draft.
GUEUZE is a blended Lambic, where an old, matured lambic is blended with a new one still fermenting. The result will be naturally carbonated by the further fermentation. If kegged this is called a "Gueuze-Lambic", but if bottled simply a "Gueuze". Some of the bottled versions are intended for laying-down, especially the corked versions, which will mature over a period of five years, becoming drier and more complex with age.
KRIEK LAMBIC and FRAMBOISE LAMBIC are Gueuze beers further blended with macerated cherries (kriek) or raspberries (framboise). The fruit is added to the oaken cask and allowed to remain in contact with the beer for one to 1 1/2 months, then removed. Fruits used can also be dried or made into a syrup, although this is not the traditional way. After this stage of fermentation, it may be further blended, then bottled and allowed to bottle-condition. The resulting beer will be about 5.3-6.5% v/v, with the added content coming from the fruit added.
FARO is a Lambic, generally a very sour one, blended with sugar or caramel. This is usually done at the time of drinking, although kegged versions exist if the turnover is great enough to sell it before the added sugar ferments out. Bottled versions are pasteurized (as done with sweet stout) to prevent this problem.
HISTORY: Lambics have been brewed for over 500 years. The peasants in Bruegel paintings are drinking Lambics, not wine. The style uses ancient techniques, and is only possible in the Senne valley area west of Brussels, due to the uniqueness of the microflora. The name "Lambic" is a corruption of the village name
LAMBIC continued
"Lembeek", or "lime creek", which is a town in the region where these beers are produced.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Lambic beers are made from barley malt and 30-40% unmalted wheat. Hops used in Lambics are generally aged for up to three years to diminish the aroma and bitterness. Their presence is for antibacterial purposes, not flavor. The wort, because of the wheat content, will be milky-white and may have to be boiled for three to six hours.
"Spontaneous Fermentation" is a characteristic of Lambics. These beers are deliberately exposed to the natural yeasts in the Senne valley, which are the only yeasts added for fermentation. The traditional breweries have slats in the roof, where the cooling wort is exposed overnight to the natural microflora of the region. The best beers come from autumn nights, while midsummer is avoided due to the wildness of the yeasts at this time. Brettanomyces lambicus, B. bruxelliensis, Saccharomyces bayanus, S. cerevisiae, and Lactobacillus delbruckii have all been identified in Lambic styles, but the overall result is more complex than just these varieties can account for.
Primary and secondary fermentation will take place in oaken barrels previously used for port, claret, or sherry wines. Maturation will be at least "two summers", or at least a year old. Some brewers outside the region try to obtain the used barrels, in the hope that the beer will develop the same characteristics. Because of this technique, no two beers, or even two seasons from the same brewery, will be exactly the same.
Kriek and Framboise Lambics will be blended from Gueuze beers with added fruit, giving an additional fermentation. They may then be further blended with young beer and bottled, bottle conditioned, and aged.
Lambic beers are extensively blended, generally mixing an old beer with a new one that is still fermenting strongly in the secondary stage. Some companies do not brew, but buy beer and blend it exclusively. Natural carbonation in the bottle, for the carbonated versions, is the rule with Lambic style beers, and some varieties are allowed to mature in the bottles.
VARIATIONS: Some Gueuze beers are currently being blended with peaches, bananas, blackcurrants, etc., giving a nontraditional but flavorful variation.
EXAMPLES: Gueuze: Belle Vue; Kriek Lambic: Belle Vue; Framboise Lambic: Lindemans; Faro: Boon Faro Pertotale
CHARACTERISTICS: A beer made with barley malt, unmalted wheat and oats, and seasoned not with hops but with coriander, Curacao orange peels, and possibly cumin. SG will be 1048, with 4.8% v/v. The taste has an orange-ish character and a honey-ish aroma, with some lactic sourness. Serving temperature around 54 degrees.
HISTORY: Made in the east of Brabant since at least the 17th century, but only a handful of breweries remain today. The biggest is De Kluis, and the beer is Hoegaarden White. This brewery closed in the 1950s, but was reopened in the mid-1960s. Demand for this style grew sufficiently that the brewery was remodeled, and capacity increased sufficiently for exportation to the USA. Other brands are also now being exported to the USA.
BREWING PROCEDURE: A mash with 50% barley malt, 45% unmalted wheat, and 5% unmalted raw oats is used. Hops are not used, and the beer is seasoned with coriander, curacao orange peels, and possibly cumin. Fermentation is with a proprietary yeast culture that gives some sourness. After primary fermentation the beer is given a dosage of a different strain of yeast and left to bottle condition. Aging reduces the lactic sourness and allows the honey character to emerge.
VARIATIONS: Hoegaarden Grand Cru is seasoned the same way but made from an all-barley malt to a 1076 SG, 7.0% v/v content. Aging for three to four years is recommended. Store and serve at 54 degrees.
EXAMPLES: White: Hoegaarden White Beer, Dentergem Witbier;
All-malt: Hoegaarden Grand Cru
CHARACTERISTICS: A sweet-and-sour red beer with a rich, vinous, complexity of taste. Made with extensive aging in uncoated oak tuns, which gives the red color and the characteristics of the style. Rodenbach is the classic brewery of this style. Two products dominate: Rodenbach and Rodenbach Grand Cru.
Rodenbach (4.6% v/v) is a blend of a young beer of 11.5 plato and 5-6 weeks of aging and a stronger beer (13 plato) that is aged for 18 months to 2 years in oak. 75% of the blend is young beer.
Rodenbach Grand Cru is 100% of the aged version (5.2% v/v), and is sweetened slightly with sugar and flash-pasteurized. This is not intended for laying down.
HISTORY: This style goes back centuries. The "old ale" style of Britain was once made in this style (old/young blend aged in oak), but only "Strong Suffolk" by Greene King is still made this way. Rodenbach is a trademarked name, and may not be referenced by other breweries making similar styles.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Strong beer (13 plato) is made in a double decoction mash from four varieties of malt and 20% corn grits. Hopping is with Brewers Gold and Kent Goldings. Rodenbach yeast is used, which is an amalgam of 5 strains. After secondary fermentation, the beer is transferred to uncoated oak tuns for 18-24 months of aging. Acetobacter and lactobacillus, as well as oak tannins and other products in the oak are working on the beer at this time. It is then either bottled straight (after being sweetened and flash-pasteurized) as Grand Cru, or mixed with 75% of a 11.5 plato beer made the same way, but without the oak tuns (secondary fermentation in metal tanks). This is the regular Rodenbach, and will age in the bottle.
VARIATIONS: Alexander, a Grand Cru with some cherry sweetness. Other breweries in this style exist, but none with the extent of wood aging or character as Rodenbach.
EXAMPLES: Rodenbach, Rodenbach Grand Cru, Alexander
CHARACTERISTICS: Another old-ale-like style, but very complex. An East Flanders sweet-and sour style, made by blending old (8-10 months aging) beer with young (5-6 weeks). It has an elegant, spritzy character with a great depth of flavor. Around 12-13 Plato, the classic, Liefmans, is brewed from four varieties of malt and four of hops, and uniquely boiled the entire night. The mixed variety is "Liefmans", the straight aged variety "Goudenband", Alcohol 4.6% v/v for Liefmans, 5.5% for Goudenband. Goudenband is bottle conditioned with another yeast dosage and can be laid down for two years. About 20-25 degrees Lovibond in color.
HISTORY: Another old-ale style, this one dating to before 1679, the oldest known date of operation for Liefmans. The old-beer-mixed-with-young-beer technique is a common feature of old-ale styles.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Four varieties of malts, four of hops, boiled the entire night, then pitched with brewery yeast culture, which has a slight lactic character. After primary fermentation, the beer is transferred to metal tanks for a secondary fermentation at room temperature for 6 weeks. The old version is aged for 8 to 10 months and is added to the young in regular Liefmans, and is bottled straight for Goudenband. Goudenband is pitched again for bottle conditioning, and can be laid up for up to 2 years.
VARIATIONS: Up to 10 beers in this style are brewed in Belgium, two or three in the Oudenaard area of East Flanders.
Liefmans also makes a "Kriek", which is brown beer with blended-in cherries. NOTE THAT THIS IS NOT A LAMBIC STYLE CHERRY BEER.
EXAMPLES: Liefmans, Liefmans Goudenband
CHARACTERISTICS: A Saison is a light-to-medium body, pale to golden, top fermented brew with SG in the range 1044-1080, alcohol 4.0% to 7.5% v/v, color 3.5-12 degrees Lovibond, 20-30 IBUs. These are Belgian "lawnmower beers", and are the ale counterpart to the Marzen style. The characteristics will be a powerful carbonation, creamy soft texture, full orange-ish color, fruitiness, citric sourness, hint of iron, and some spicy notes. These are native to Hainaut. All will have a well-attenuated crystal malt character, some weeks of maturation in both tank and bottle, and some have a period of cold conditioning. Many have spices or licorice root added.
HISTORY: "Saison" means "season", and these are considered seasonal beers. Saisons are lighter (relatively speaking) summer beers from the French part of Belgium (Wallonia) and are made for summer/harvest drinking. Saisons have been around for at least 200 years.
BREWING PROCEDURE: Top-fermenting yeast, all-malt, crystal malt, some spices. Lots of aging in tanks at room temperature, in the bottle, and some are cold-conditioned. Interesting, complex yeast cultures used.
VARIATIONS: Sezoens, in the Flemish part of Belgium, is similar.
EXAMPLES: Saison Regal, Saison Silly, Saison de Pipaix
CHARACTERISTICS: These include many ale varieties, including some imported from elsewhere:
BELGIAN ALES include De Koninck, are similar to British styles, probably introduced by British troops during the two world wars. De Koninck is a top-fermenting all-malt ale (1048 SG), 5% v/v, which is brewed in a fire-heated tun and is cold conditioned. Yeasty, fruity aroma with malt notes and Saaz hop character. This is Antwerp's local brew.
STRONG GOLDEN ALES, which include Duvel, are extremely pale (around 3 degrees Lovibond) smooth ales that pack a potent punch (1070 SG, 8.2% v/v). Perhaps this is the reason for the "devil" allusion in the name. Made from the brewery's own maltings, with a pure-culture single-cell yeast strain, the brew is made with 31 BU of Saaz hops, top fermented, cold conditioned at 32 degrees for 2-3 weeks, then re-pitched, bottled, and allowed to condition at room temperature for 2 weeks. It is then cold-aged for a further month or more at 38 degrees. Red label Duvel is bottle-conditioned, green label is filtered.
Another loosely in the Barley Wine style is Bush Beer, the strongest beer in Belgium 1096, 12.2% v/v, clear, copper colored, not pasteurized, not bottle conditioned, chewy nutty palate with hoppy finish.
STRONG DARK ALES such as Kwack (served in its long 1/2 yard glass) and Golden Carolus are rich, sweet, creamy in texture, complex in palate, with a big malt aroma and a light hop character. These beers are usually bottle-conditioned. Strength is around 6.5-7.5% v/v, 1065-1076 SG. Kwack has licorice notes in its complex flavor.
Other varieties include British style Scotch ales, pale ales, and stouts.
CHARACTERISTICS: Mostly dark or darkish top-fermenting, bottle conditioned ales made with proprietary yeast cultures and candy sugar (beet sugar or rock candy). The Trappists are the primary producers of this style, and only they can used the appellation "peres Trappistes" on the bottle, but other breweries make to this style as well ("Abbey" or "Abbey-Style"). The beers will be darker amber to very dark in color (although some lighter versions exist), complex, soft, and fruity in character, and most will be bottle-conditioned and for laying down.
There are five Trappist monasteries in Belgium and one in Holland that make Abbey style beers.
WESTMALLE near Antwerp, makes three varieties of varying strengths, although the "dubble" (16 plato, 6.5% v/v) and "tripel" (20 Plato, 8% v/v) are the most popularly exported.
WESTVLETEREN is in West Flanders. They have three varieties, of varying strengths, although the most common is called St. Sixtus, after the Abbey name, and brewed by an outside brewer under contract. The Westvleteren name will be used on their own product; the outside-brewed beer is St. Sixtus (12 plato, 9.5% v/v, yeasty-sweet fruitiness with melon notes).
CHIMAY is the most widely known of the abbeys. They make three varieties, Red, White, and Blue. The Blue is also known as Chimay Grand Reserve (1078, 9.0% v/v) and has Zinfandel-like notes in the taste. It can be laid down. All of these are bottle-conditioned. Chimay is the largest producer of Abbey beers, and one of the most innovative, with a large, modern brewery on the abbey grounds.
ROCHEFORT is the abbey at St. Remy, makes the Rochefort 10, a 9.0% v/v brew that has a rich, deep chocolaty palate. Not a commonly-found abbey beer.
ORVAL is another large producer, but makes only one variety. Orval is 14 plato, 5.7% v/v, with all-malt mash and candy sugar. Hallertauer and Kent Goldings are used in the boil, and Kent Goldings for the finish. The beer is secondary-conditioned at 60 degrees, primed with a different yeast strain, and bottled and bottle-conditioned at the brewery for two months. It can be laid down, and matures at cellar temperatures of 50-55 degrees in one to three years. This is a complex beer that must be stored properly. Taste is dry, immensely complex, orange-ish in color, and an intense, almost sour bitterness. Orval means "valley of gold", and legend has it that a princess lost a gold ring in a lake in the valley. She promised to build a monastery if she could recover it, and then a fish jumped out of the lake with the ring in its mouth and she held to her word. This is origin of the fish-with-ring symbol on the Orval bottle. This is the oldest monastery, from 1070.
SCHAAPSKOOI monastery is the sole example in the Netherlands, and makes a Dubble and Tripel, referred to as "La Trappe", but also makes Koningshoeven "trappist-style" beer under contract for the Allied Breweries firm.
HISTORY: Originally brewed as a "liquid bread", especially for Lent, and for travelers. Brewing started in the Middle Ages, but was halted when Napoleon secularized the monasteries in the early 19th century. Westmalle resumed brewing in 1836, and the others followed suit. The monasteries brew both for their own needs and as a source of external income.
COMMON EXAMPLES AVAILABLE IN AMERICA: Chimay Red, White, Grande Reserve (Blue); Orval, Westmalle Dubble, Tripel
Barley must be appropriate for the style, and be properly malted for the style. The aroma should be fresh and grainy, not moldy, musty or rancid. The husk should be thin, finely wrinkled, and tightly jacket the kernel. Kernels should be glossy, uniformly straw colored, and smell like clean grain. Good kernels will also appear opaque, white, and mealy, not translucent, grayish, steely or glassy.
PROBLEMS WITH BAD GRAIN: Fusarium mold, cheesy or rank smell will carry over into the taste and aroma of the beer. Excessive contamination on the grain will have a deleterious effect on the mash and may yield other off flavors, especially sour-acidic and diacetyl.
Grains are ideally crushed in a roller mill, as the idea is to split them, not shred or pulverize the grains or the husks. Properly crushed grain from a Corona or similar mill will involve a careful setting to minimize husk destruction and flour production. Grain should be mashed as soon as possible after crushing, or, if this is not possible, stored in an airtight container.
PROBLEMS WITH BAD CRUSH include flour production and husk pulverization and ripping. This will result in excessive husk tannins leached into the beer, giving cloudy beer, astringent, mouth puckering, husky tastes, phenolic tastes. Flouring the endosperm starch will cause it to ball in the mash and not be converted. This will give excessive starch content in the beer, causing cloudy beer, excessively grainy tastes, and a host of bacterially-caused off flavors in the bottled beer. These include diacetyl, DMS, and sour/acidity caused by the normally present bacteria in the bottled beer finding food they would not normally have in the starch. Excessive carbonation problems may also result from the bacteria action. Finally, the extraction efficiency and yield from the grains will be reduced.
Doughing in should be done slowly, with water at the properly elevated temperature to bring the mash to the desired mash-in temperature. Slow doughing-in will prevent starch balling and clumping. The mash should be kneaded, with water added gradually, so that every corner of the mash will be wetted properly, before pouring the bulk of the water into the tun.
PROBLEMS WITH DOUGHING-IN are mostly related to excessive starch balling, which, like a poor crush, will result in excessive starch in the beer - giving diacetyl, DMS, sour/acidic tastes, carbonation problems, and poor sugar yield from the mash.
Three popular types - Decoction, Temperature-Controlled (or step-infusion), and Infusion.
DECOCTION MASHES are used if the grain is not fully modified. Three steps (acid rest, protein rest, and saccharification rest) are used. The heavy fraction of the wort is heated to boiling to raise the temperature of the total mash to the desired stage. This has the advantage of breaking down large protein chains, gums, and resins into forms that can be rendered fermentable by the enzymes. It also breaks up starch balls that may have formed during doughing-in, and exposes them to the enzymes for conversion.
As the enzymes are in the lighter, more liquid part of the mash they will not be greatly reduced by decoction.
Care must be taken to prevent husk tannins from excessively leaching into the word during the boiling stages.
Decoction mashing, although the most involved, has the following advantages: it gives a greater yield of fermentable sugars from the grain; it gives a better lauter sparge and runoff; it removes more undesirable proteins and gums from the wort; it gives better hop utilization in the boil (meaning less hops can be used).
TEMPERATURE-CONTROLLED MASHING, sometimes called "Step-Mashing", involves the same temperature rests as decoction mashing, but the temperatures are reached by adding boiling water or heating the mash tun. The advantage of this method is that it is simpler than decoction mashing, although yields from the grain will be lower and more proteins will be in the final wort. Greater hop use will also be required.
Either a decoction mash or a temperature-controlled mash must be used when using undermodified malts.
INFUSION MASHING is only used for fully-modified malts. The strike temperature after doughing-in is immediately raised to saccharification levels (around 150 degrees) and saccharification is allowed to proceed to completion.
Infusion mashing is the British style of mashing. However, excessive protein production will result in lower yields through losses in modification and conversion, and possible stuck runoff due to protein and gum concentration in the wort. Higher hopping rates are also required.
The main advantage of an infusion mash is that it is quick and easy.
The pH of the mash at mash-in should be between 5.5-5.8. An Acid Rest is used to acidify the mash to pH 5.2 only when using pale, undermodified malts, when the water used is excessively soft or alkaline and when the addition of gypsum or other salts or acids is not appropriate for the style being brewed. The normally present (on the grain) Lactobacillus delbruckii, a thermophilic gram-positive bacteria, will acidify the mash without adding sour flavors if done in a limited fashion. Additionally, the enzyme phytase will dismantle the phytin into phytic acid (between 86 and 128 degrees). This rest should not be used on excessively carbonate waters, but works well on reasonably soft or sulfated waters.
During this rest the mash should be tightly covered to exclude undesired airborne contamination.
This rest should not exceed 1/2 hour. An acid rest is not needed if the proper pH is present.
PROBLEMS WITH ACID REST include excessive contamination by airborne bacteria, which can cause undesirable flavors. The mash should be heated above 122 degrees or up to 140 degrees if thermophylic bacteria are the cause. Excessive acidification or sourness of the mash will cause sour-acidic tastes in the beer and result in poor conversion in the mash.
The protein rest is necessary to permit the proteolytic enzymes to convert the proteins in the mash to smaller fractions. Two proteolytic enzyme reactions are taking place. The first uses the enzymes protease, peptase, and peptidase to dissolve the peptide links in the protein chains to release the simpler albuminous fractions. These fractions coagulate with the hop resins in the kettle and help transmit hop bitterness to the beer. They also help give the beer body and help in maintaining a good head. These enzymes work in the range 122-140 degrees.
Proteinase dissolves some of the simpler nitrogen-based albumins to amino acids. These are essential for yeast nutrition and growth. This enzyme works in the range 113-122 degrees.
As some of these protein chains have saccharide fractions (fermentable), these are liberated by the proteolytic enzymes and increase the mash yield. Also, phytase continues its actions, turning phytin into phytic acid and further lowering the mash pH to below 5.4. Other non-proteolytic enzymes are also at work dissolving pectins and other substances.
The protein rest should be about 1/2 hour in length.
A protein rest is essential for undermodified malt, and optional for fully-modified malt.
PROBLEMS WITH PROTEIN REST include excessive conversion of proteins into simple fractions. This can occur with too long a rest. This can cause the yeast to use up its nutrients too early, and cease reproducing prematurely. This can result in stuck ferment, diacetyl, acetaldehyde, bacterial contamination (dms, sour/acidic, solventlike flavors). The lack of albuminous protein fractions in the beer will give it a thin taste and poor head and head retention. Also the extraction of bitterness from the hops may be impaired, resulting in less than the planned amount of bitterness in the finished beer.
The second major group of problems comes from too many large-chain proteins left in the beer, either from skipping this rest or doing it for too short a time. This will result in cloudy, unclearable beer, while the proteins will provide food for microbiological contamination that would not normally dominate in otherwise properly processed and bottled beer. Excessive unconverted proteins may lead to off flavors such as cooked vegetable, diacetyl, DMS, and sour/acidic and rancid flavors even when sanitization procedures are properly performed.
Here is where the sugars are converted into starches by the actions of the diastatic enzymes alpha amylase and beta amylase, which together form diastase
Alpha amylase works best between 149-153 degrees, and at a pH of 5.7. This enzyme breaks up the large starch chains into smaller dextrinous fractions. The process is called dextrinization. Alpha amylase comprises about 25% of diastase, and will deactivate in 2 hours at 153 degrees.
Beta amylase works best between 126 and 144 degrees, and at a pH of 5.1. This enzyme pulls the glucose molecules off the ends of the dextrinous chains and transforms them into maltose by combining two glucose molecules with water. This process is called saccharification. Beta amylase is 75% of diastase, and will deactivate in 40-60 minutes at 149 degrees.
As both processes are desired during this rest, the optimal saccharification temperatures will be a compromise designed to encourage the enzyme desired for the finished beer composition. An alpha-oriented saccharification rest will give beer with a good mouth feel and good head, but lower alcohol per unit weight grain used. Beta-oriented rests will give a thinner beer but higher in alcohol.
Two temperature ranges are generally used to encourage the desired end result. Mashes below 155 degrees will permit the beta enzyme to dominate, and result in a thinner wort with more fermentable sugars. Mashes above 155 will give fuller-bodied beers with good mouth feel, but with less fermentables. Some brewers combine these steps to give the desired balance in the beers.
PROBLEMS IN THE SACCHARIFICATION REST include incomplete conver- sion due to thin mash at high temperatures and resulting enzyme destruction, too many starches converted to maltose by beta enzymes for beer that is to be lagered (no maltotriose and partially fermentable dextrines to sustain yeast during lagering time), and too many adjuncts for the enzymes in the mash to convert. Additional problems will be encountered with excessive tannin leaching if the rest goes on for too long a period.
Problems with incomplete conversion will result in excessive starches in the beer. This will result in cloudy beer, and permit bacterial growth which may cause DMS, diacetyl, cooked-vegetable flavors, sour-acidic tastes, and gushing in bottled beer under certain conditions.
Iodine is used to determine if the conversion of the starches is complete. Iodine in contact with pure starch turns a deep purple; in contact with wort it will vary from deep purple to straw yellow depending on the amount of starches present. Reading the iodine test incorrectly may result in a premature termination of the mash. In a complete conversion iodine in contact with the mash should appear straw yellow, its natural color, with no change.
After conversion is complete, the mash is heated to 167 degrees to terminate enzyme activity prior to lautering. This is done to prevent further reduction of dextrins during the lautering process.
PROBLEMS are usually a result of heating without stirring, or heating in excess of 170 degrees.
Temperatures in excess of 170 degrees will leach tannins from the husks, giving husky-grainy and astringent tastes, undesired in beer. The beer may also be cloudy.
Heating without stirring extensively (unless a decoction mash is used) will also extract husk tannins. Remember that a thermometer is measuring only a single point in the mash - there can be considerable local temperature variations if the mash is heated without stirring.
Lautering is the process of separating the sweet wort from the grain fractions, and giving clear, clean wort from the mash.
Lautering is best done slowly, with the wort returned to the tun until the runs are clear. The temperature range of 160-170 degrees should be maintained throughout the entire process. The filterbed should be at least 6 inches for 6-row, and 12 inches for 2-row. The mash is added after 175 degree water is poured in until it forms a layer 1/2 inch above the false bottom of the tun. (Note - 175 degrees is used here, and nowhere else, to pre-heat the lauter tun to help maintain the proper sparge temperature range. Additional sparge water should not exceed 170 degrees). The mash should be allowed to settle until the liquid is clear above the tops of the grains.
Flow rates should be slow, and the addition of sparge water (at 170 degrees) gently done, not permitting the level of the liquid to go below the grains. An hydrometer reading of the first runs from the tun should be about twice the value desired in the finished beer. If not, it should be returned to the tun.
Sparging should cease when the gravity drops to below 1008, or the pH of the runoff is higher than 6.0.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED WITH LAUTERING include lautering too fast, which will give poor yield and possibly flush starch and protein fractions into the wort. Failing to return the output to the tun until it comes out clear will also do this.
Temperatures above 170 degrees, in the mash or added water, will leach tannins and permit undissolved starch balls to explode and get past the filterbed. Gums and proteins will also be released into the beer when this is done.
Tannins will give a husky, mouth puckering astringency and cloud the beer. Starches will give a grainy taste. Starches, gums, and proteins will possibly result in a spread of bacterial contamination, resulting in cooked vegetable, cooked corn, butterscotch, rancid, cardboardy, and garbagey flavors, and possibly overcarbonation. Starches, tannins, gums, and proteins will all cause problems with beer clarity.
Sparging at below 150 degrees, or allowing the sparge to go below this temperature for excessive periods, can cause bacterial contamination to grow in the lauter tun, resulting in flavors (sourness, rancid) that cannot be removed later.
Boiling the wort, with the addition of hops, extracts the hop alpha acids and isomerizes and dissolves them, stops enzyme action, kills bacteria, fungus, and wild yeast, precipitates and coagulates undesired proteins, stabilizes salts in solution, and boils off undesired harsh hop oils, malt oils, sulfur compounds, ketones, and esters. A full, rolling boil for at least one hour is necessary to make quality beer.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED WITH THE BOIL are many if the wort is not boiled, not boiled for one hour, or not boiled vigorously. Not boiling risks contamination from fusarium mold (on the barley), bacteria, wild yeast, and further saccharification (undesired) by enzyme action. This may produce diacetyl, DMS, sulfury notes, cooked vegetable, sourness, acidness, garbage-like tastes and smells, and moldy notes. The wort must be sanitized.
Not boiling for one hour risks underutilization of hop acids, and the bittering level may be off. Additionally, the head may not be as well formed due to improper extraction of isohumulones from the hops. A good rolling boil for one hour is necessary to bind the hop oils to the albumins, forming colloids that remain in the beer and help form a good stable head.
A rolling boil aides in the removal of undesired volatile compounds, such as some bitter hop compounds, esters, and sulfur compounds. Beer made without a rolling boil may be more astrin- gent and be more prone to DMS formation.
Clarity will be also be affected by not using a full hour rolling boil, as there will not be a good hot break to take out the undesired proteins. This will also affect shelf life of the bottled beer, as the proteins will promote bacterial growth even in properly sanitized beer bottles over time.
The preservative qualities of hops will also suffer greatly if the wort is not boiled for one hour, as the extraction of the needed compounds will be impaired.
Boiled wort must be cooled as quickly as possible. This is done to prevent infection, prevent DMS formation chemically in the wort, and provide a good cold break to precipitate out proteins and trub.
The best way of cooling is with a wort chiller. Two varieties are commonly available to homebrewers: counter-flow (used by breweries), and full-immersion. Either variety will cool 5 gallons in about 10-15 minutes to yeast pitching temperature. Using cooled, sanitized (boiled and chilled) add water with the small batch method is also acceptable, if the carboy is at yeast pitching temperature (90 degrees or less) after everything is mixed.
PROBLEMS WITH COOLING stem from slow cooling and improper handling of cooled wort.
Infection from bacteria and wild yeast will occur when the temperature drops below 150 degrees. They will multiply with astonishing speed at these higher temperatures. Diacetyl and DMS-producing wort bacteria will definitely taint slow-cooled beer, giving DMS, butterscotch, cooked vegetable and sulfury tastes and aromas to the final beer.
Additionally, slow cooling will cause certain chemical reactions to occur in the wort that will cause DMS to form. This DMS is not due to contamination or wort bacteria, but tastes/smells the same and will be impossible to remove.
Unsatisfactory cold break will occur if the wort is cooled too slowly. Poor cold break will leave undesired hop components and proteins and gums in the beer. These become insoluble as the wort is suddenly chilled, and drop out to the bottom of the fermenter and will not be redissolved. The same compounds have time to be re-absorbed when the wort is slow-cooled. These compounds will result in chill haze and encourage the development of certain bacteriological off-flavors.
Using tap water which has not been boiled and chilled for carboy cooling using the small-batch boil method runs the risk of adding any bacteria (such as coliform) that are often present in tap water.
Oxygen needs to be introduced into the wort to promote yeast development during the lag phase, when it is living and reproducing aerobically. This is done by aerating the wort.
Aeration of the wort is generally done by shaking the carboy vigorously. This is the only time that oxygen is to be introduced in the beermaking process.
Aeration should be done in a relatively clean (biologically speaking) environment. If the air smells bad aerate the beer somewhere else.
Aerating hot wort has the following advantages: No risk of contamination from air; better cold break by oxidizing some protein fractions.
Aerating hot wort has the following disadvantages: Polyphenols turned to tannins; oxidation of hop resins; darker color.
Aerating hot wort should not be done for very pale, very dark, or very full-bodied worts, or for delicate styles such as Viennas.
Underaeration will cause the yeast to prematurely stop fermenta- tion, resulting in stuck fermentation, excessively sweet wort, diacetyl and acetaldehyde remaining and not reabsorbed, and sulfur from yeast autolysis.
Overaeration may result in excessive formation of ethyl acetate, giving solventlike acrid aroma and taste, and banana aroma.
Fermentation is generally divided into two stages: Primary fermentation and Secondary fermentation.
Primary fermentation refers to the initial, active phase when the yeast is forming the kraeusen head. During this stage the yeast is actively fermenting the malt sugars to alcohol and carbon dioxide. Primary fermentation is generally over when the kraeusen head disappears. At this time about one half to two-thirds of the fermentables have been converted. Primary fermentation will generally take anywhere from three to ten days, depending on the yeast strain, the fermentation tempera- ture, and the dextrin content of the wort.
Secondary fermentation allows the slow reduction of the remaining fermentable sugars. This may take from seven to twenty-one days, depending on the yeast strain and the amount of fermentable sugars in the wort. Generally, ales will require a shorter period of secondary fermentation than lagers. During this period the yeast will begin to flocculate as the last of the sugars are used up. It is important that no oxygen be allowed into the beer at this time. Most brewers recommend racking the beer to a secondary fermentation vessel at the end of the primary fermentation.
Fermentation should proceed at the proper temperature for the yeast strain and style of beer being brewed. Sudden variations in temperature in excess of 6 degrees F. per day must be avoided during fermentation. Strong light should also be excluded from fermenting vessels (especially glass carboys).
Gas locks should be of the type that will not permit lock water to be sucked down into the carboy. Locks should not permit a great pressure to build up in the carboy.
If using a blowout technique (recommended), make sure that the blowout hose is sanitized before installing it on the carboy. Suspend it above the catch bucket, so that there is no possibility of blowout being sucked back into the carboy should the carboy be cooled. The hose should also be big enough that pelletized hops will not cause it to foul, resulting in a blown cork and kraeusen foam on the floor. Never fasten or seal the cork to the carboy!
PROBLEMS WITH FERMENTATION include the following: underpitching; overpitching; improper temperature; rapid temperature variations; light-struck; excessive fermentation time, stuck fermentation
Pitching is the act of adding the active yeast starter to the chilled and aerated beer wort.
Underpitching will result in excessive contamination. The wort is in its most vulnerable state after cooling and prior to high-kraeusen blowout. Sufficient yeast must be pitched to bring about high-kraeusen blowout within 24 hours, and ideally less than 12 hours after cooling. This time between pitching and high-kraeusen is called "lag time", and the smaller the lag time the better. Underpitching will give any contamination a chance to establish itself in the beer, resulting in DMS, diacetyl, cooked vegetable, and similar off-flavors. Another result may be a delayed reaction in the bottled beer, resulting in overcarbonation from a seemingly normally-carbonated beer left for two or three months.
Overpitching will generally result in "yeast bite", a noticeable yeasty taste in the beer. Re-using all of the slurry from the bottom of a primary fermenter in a new batch will usually overpitch the batch. Overpitching results in rapid consumption of the limited amounts of dissolved oxygen, simple sugars, and yeast nutrients. This will result in yeast autolysis, or self-digestion, and will result in yeasty, sulfur-like flavors.
The optimal amount of yeast is about 0.4-0.6 ounce of pasty, thick yeast sediment per gallon of wort, or about 2.0 to 3.0 ounces per gallon. For dry yeasts this translates to no less than 12 grams of yeast, activated before pitching by dissolving in 90 degree F sanitized water (not wort or sugar water) for about 20 minutes. For cultures, a starter of at least 16 oz of wort (for five gallons) should be prepared and allowed to go into high kraeusen before pitching into the wort. Using less than this amount (such as directly from a bagged culture package) will underpitch the batch and result in an excessively long lag time.
Improper temperature will result in a totally different beer from what is intended. Too high a fermentation temperature for lager yeasts will, in most cases, result in fruity-estery tastes that are uncharacteristic of lagers (unless you are making a steam beer with a heat-tolerant lager yeast). Too cold a temperature with an ale yeast can cause it to stop working and flocculate out prematurely, resulting in a stuck fermentation, with accompanying diacetyl, acetaldehyde, and excessively sweet tastes.
Rapid temperature fluctuations will often result in production of DMS and other sulfur-like compounds, particularly with certain lager strains. It can also disrupt the yeast life cycle, resulting in premature flocculation and mutant yeast growth. Temperature changes should be limited to no more than six degrees (Fahrenheit) per 24 hour period once the yeast has established itself in the wort.
Light can destroy a fermenting beer in the same manner as it can destroy bottled beer, by causing a breakdown of hop oils to undesirable sulfur compounds. This will result in a skunky taste and aroma. Keep glass carboys away from strong sources of light at all times.
Leaving the beer in contact with the yeast sediment and trub for any extended length of time is undesirable. Such trub can contribute many off flavors such as medicinal, sulfury, diacetyl, and astringency. Yeast autolysis (decay) can also provide food for any stray bacteria present in the beer and permit it to grow. While racking to a secondary is generally not necessary for most ales due to the short fermentation time, it is a good idea to carefully rack to a clean secondary any beers destined to be secondary-fermented or cold-lagered.
Stuck fermentations are generally a result of either premature flocculation of the yeast before it has a chance to properly attenuate the wort, or, in the case of high-gravity beers, a lack of alcohol tolerance in the yeast strain which causes it to die out and stop working before the fermentables in the wort have been consumed. "Rousing" the yeast, which can be done by gently shaking the sealed carboy, may sometimes result in the fermentation resuming sufficiently to complete the attenuation. Rousing must not result in additional oxygen being dissolved in the beer at this stage. Another method is to add more fresh yeast, in the form of a starter culture. This is the best method of completing the fermentation of a high-alcohol beer started with a normal yeast strain.
Often times a fermentation is considered "stuck" when, in reality, all the fermentables have been consumed. A beer made with a high dextrine content may only attenuate to around 40% - 45% of the starting gravity, with the high end gravity a result of the unfermentable dextrine content of the beer. No amount of rousing or repitching will result in a lower final gravity of such a beer.
Racking is the process of transferring the beer from one container to another, generally to leave behind unwanted trub. It is of utmost importance that racking be done without "splashing" the beer, or permitting oxygen to dissolve in it. Racking is usually done by means of a siphon. It is important when starting a siphon that the lips never come into contact with any part of the hoses that will contact the beer.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED WITH RACKING include splashing or aeration of the beer, poor sanitation, and contamination when starting the siphon.
Splashing and aerating the wort while racking can result in oxidization of the beer, which will give a sherrylike, cardboardy taste. It can also permit the formation of undesirable esters and sulfur compounds.
Microbiological contamination can also be introduced by splashing the beer at this stage. Poor sanitization, especially hoses or racking tubes that are dirty and therefore impossible to sanitize properly, will also introduce microbiological contamination. Starting the siphon by sucking on it will contaminate and usually ruin the beer.
The word "lager" in German means "to store". Lagering is the process of cold-aging beers made with lager yeasts. Lagering is done at colder temperatures than those used for primary or secondary fermentation. Temperatures between 32 and 35 degrees are generally used. Time for lagering ranges from a few days to a few months, depending on the starting gravity and dextrin content of the beer.
Cold lagering is generally done only for beers made with slow-fermenting lager yeasts (S. uvarum), although short to medium periods of cold-aging will help almost any beer with active yeast.
Lagering will act to improve the beer by smoothing out the harsh flavors present. During lagering many of the tannins present in the beer combine with the haze-forming proteins and settle out. The yeast slows down but still continues to work, converting slow-fermenting sugars such as maltotriose and the higher dextrins. As these sugars are consumed the yeast will then act to consume some of the undesired esters and sulfur compounds that may have been formed by inadvertent oxygenation, light-striking, or yeast autolysis. The yeast then will go dormant and flocculate out, clarifying the beer.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED WITH LAGERING include oxygenation and rapid temperature fluctuations. Oxygenation will result in the formation of diacetyl and oxidized fusel oils, especially with darker beers. Higher temperatures and rapidly fluctuating temperatures encourage the formation of aldehydes (which give beers stale, cardboardy-like flavors) and yeast cell decomposi- tion, which results in sulfury, stale and solventlike flavors, and can contribute to later instabilities in the bottled beer.
Beer should always be racked off the trub in the primary fermenter to a secondary before lagering.
Priming is the term for adding extra fermentables to a beer just prior to bottling, to permit the yeast to carbonate the beer. The renewed yeast activity should be just sufficient to force the CO2 produced into the beer at the correct gas volume level. Note that most commercial breweries force-carbonate their beers by pumping CO2 gas into them through a carbonation stone (a porous stone that disperses the CO2 into very small, fine bubbles).
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERS WITH PRIMING are usually due to using to much priming sugar, too little, storing newly bottled beer in a too-cold location, not dissolving sugar in water and boiling, weak yeast, or using wort or malt extract (instead of corn sugar) when priming a lager beer.
Corn sugar is generally used by homebrewers for priming as it is easy to use and, in small amounts, does not impart any flavors to the beer. The amount of corn sugar used for priming is critical to the proper carbonation of the beer. Generally, 1/2 to 3/4 cup of corn sugar per 5 gallon batch of beer will give a proper carbonation level. Excessive amounts of sugar will cause overcarbonated beer, "crawlers", "gushers", or exploding bottles ("bombs").
Dry powder malt extract or wort saved from the boil ("gyle") can also be used instead of corn sugar. However, there are risks with priming with malt or gyle. For example, lager made from yeast strains that give fruity flavors at higher temperatures must not be allowed to carbonate at temperatures above those used for primary fermentation, when primed with malt or gyle, or fruity flavors will develop. Generally it is better to prime lagers with corn sugar.
Corn sugar should be added to water and boiled for at least five minutes before being added to the racked beer. This sanitizes everything and also pre-dissolves the sugar for easier use by the yeast.
Primed beers should be stored for at least two weeks at tempera- tures between 60-70 degrees to permit the yeast to work. Beers made with lager yeast and primed with malt or gyle should be stored at 50-55 degrees for about a month to prime. Lager beers that have been lagered for long periods (4-6 months) may require a longer period to prime, or, in some cases, a fresh repitching of yeast.
Bottling (or kegging) is the process of transferring the primed, finished beer into the pressure vessel (bottle or keg) so it can prime to the proper carbonation level.
Bottling is similar to racking and many of the same problems can develop, particularly if oxygen is introduced during the bottling process. Avoid using auto-shut-off bottle fill tubes if they splash excessively.
PROBLEMS WITH BOTTLING can occur if the beer is splashed or oxidized, if the bottles are over- or underfilled, or if the bottle caps are not properly sanitized.
The optimal fill level in a beer bottle has the liquid level about one inch below the lip of the bottle. Insufficient head space will interfere with the natural carbonation process and result in undercarbonated beer. Too much head space will permit excessive oxygen to dissolve in the beer, resulting in off flavors.
Caps should be boiled in water at least two minutes before use. This sanitizes them and softens the plastic sealing material, insuring a better closure.
Flushing bottles with CO2 gas both before filling and before capping is a technique used by some brewers, especially those with kegging systems. Flushing greatly reduces the chances of oxidation damage in bottled beer.
Beer should be stored in a dark, constant temperature environment. After the beer has primed, the colder the storage the better. Cold storage greatly increases the life of fresh beer. Beer should not be subjected to rapid or large temperature variations, heat above 70 degrees, or strong light.
PROBLEMS WITH STORING generally result from high temperatures or rapid temperature fluctuations. High temperature (<70 degrees) storage will result in premature "staling", with sherrylike and oxidized tastes appearing after only a few months. Autolysis of the sediment, especially combined with any starches or proteins in the beer, will be accelerated and may turn a beer that's been perfect for months into a gusher or a bomb. Rapid temperature fluctuations accelerate the effects of high-temperature staling. Intense light (sunlight) will result in skunky flavors.
The ideal storage location for beer is a constant-temperature cellar or a refrigerator (if you cellar goes above 70 degrees in the summer).
Proper serving techniques are essential for the maximum appreciation of the finished beer. Serving temperature, the glass used and how it was cleaned, the method of pouring, and the method of drinking will all have an impact on the perceived taste of the beer.
PROBLEMS WITH SERVING result from improper temperature for the style, improper or incorrectly cleaned glassware, and agitation during pouring.
Ale styles should generally be served at temperatures between 52 and 55 degrees. Most lager styles should be served at tempera- tures between 47 and 50 degrees. Note that the colder the serving temperature the less you will taste. Colder serving temperatures diminish your perceptions of many flavor components, including off-flavors. You can prove this to yourself by drinking any bland American factory lager at room temperature. Excessively colder temperatures can also make a properly carbonated beer seem undercarbonated, and the inverse with excessively warmer temperatures. When judging a competition it is your responsibility to make sure the beer that you are judging is at the proper temperature for the style. If not, don't hesitate to bring this to the attention of the chief steward.
Glassware is more important than many believe. Each style generally has a shape of glass that is more appropriate for it than others (see THE NEW WORLD GUIDE TO BEER by Michael Jackson for good detailed information). For example, the classic Weizen glass is tall, 24 ounce, and vase shaped to accommodate the high, thick, creamy head characteristic of wheat beers. Trappist ales and Berliner Weiss, on the other hand, are best served in wide-mouth stemmed goblets similar to brandy snifters to permit adequate perception of the aromas while drinking. The drinking vessel can impart a definite psychological bias while drinking. You can demonstrate this to yourself by drinking a Pilsner Urquell from a classic tapered Pilsner glass and then from a paper cup. The advent of glass drinking vessels in the 19th century, where for the first time you could see the color and clarity of what you were drinking, led to the rise in popularity of pale ale and helles lager styles.
Glassware cleaning is very important to proper head formation. Glassware should be thoroughly cleaned (in a dishwasher if available), since any flavors or aromas in the glass will definitely be imparted to the beer. Soap or detergent left on glasses can severely restrict head formation, so they must be thoroughly rinsed before use.
At a competition, beer is generally served in a four to six ounce glass or clear plastic cup. These represent the best compromise available since many beers are being tasted and small volumes sampled. Opaque or translucent cups or glasses should not be used at a competition since these interfere with proper clarity and color evaluations.
Pouring the beer can also greatly affect perception and evalua- tion. If there is sediment in the bottom of the bottle the pour should be done all at once, without turning the bottle back to vertical position until all but the last ounce (cloudy) is poured out. At a competition one person should pour for the table, with another assisting in providing empty glasses to fill.
The proper head level resulting from the pour is also important. Pour first into the center of the glass until you can determine the "wildness" of the beer; if too carbonated complete the pour down the side of the glass. "Two fingers" (0.5 - 1.5 inch) of head is preferred for adequate aromatics release.
When drinking the beer, try to "chew" it. Let all of the taste sensors in your mouth have a chance to contribute to your overall perception of the beer.
Lastly, swallow the beer and note the aftertaste. A good aftertaste is essential in a well-made beer. This aftertaste should make you want another.
CHARACTERISTICS: Acetaldehyde is the flavor and aroma of green apples. It can also taste and smell acetic/cidery.
CHEMISTRY: Formed as a precursor to alcohol by the yeast, or as a product of the oxidation of alcohol to acetic acid.
CAUSES: Yeast metabolism (fresh-cut apples) uses acetaldehyde as a step in the production of alcohol from glucose. This is a fresh, fruity flavor. The second cause is the oxidation of alcohol to acetic acid, whether by oxidation or by acetobacter (gram-negative). This flavor will be more vinegary and less pleasant.
PROCESS: As a product of yeast metabolism, it can be caused by the strain itself or by premature termination of the yeast's fermentation, such as oxygen depletion, premature flocculation, etc. such that the reaction from glucose to alcohol is stopped at the acetaldehyde stage.
The other causes are oxidation and contamination by acetic acid bacteria. This will occur during splashing when racking quiet beer (non-kraeusened) and bottling.
REMOVAL: Use a good yeast strain that will attenuate the wort properly. Oxygenate the wort at yeast-pitching time. DO NOT splash or oxygenate the wort when racking or bottling. Long lagering periods will also reduce acetaldehyde.
EXAMPLES: Budweiser deliberately manipulates their yeast and process to give 6-8 ppm acetaldehyde in the beer.
CHARACTERISTICS: Both an aroma and a mouth-feel. A hot, spicy flavor detected by the nose as a vinous aroma and by the tongue by a warming sensation in the middle of the tongue. A warming, prickling sensation in the mouth and throat.
CHEMISTRY: The end product from the conversion of glucose into carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol. Other, higher alcohols can also be present. These are called fusel oils and contribute to vinous aromas and tastes.
CAUSES: A normal reaction desired in beer, alcohol content is a function of the amount of fermentable sugars in the wort, the fermentation temperature, and the yeast strain.
Fusel oil production will be a function of the yeast strain used and the fermentation temperature (higher temperatures give more fusel oils).
PROCESS: Amount and types of fermentables in wort determine content; yeast strain and attenuation characteristics; fermenta- tion temperature determines fusel oil characteristic.
REDUCTION: The amount of alcohol and fusel alcohols should be appropriate for the beer style. Control alcohol by wort start gravity and wort content (avoid large amounts of sugars). Wort should attenuate to about 1/4 of starting gravity.
Control fusel oils by using colder fermentation temperatures.
EXAMPLES: High, lots of fusel oils: Thomas Hardy's; Moderate fusel oils: British Bitter; Low fusel oils: Pilsner Urquell.
CHARACTERISTICS: Unlike bitterness, astringency is present as a stimulation of the nerve endings throughout the mouth. It is not an aroma. The taste is a puckering, dry, unpleasant situation. It is a very acidic, tannic, tart sensation reminiscent of grape skins.
CAUSES: Bacterial contamination (lactobacillus and acetobacter); added astringency from grains or hops.
PROCESS: Caused by: poor sanitation; excessive hopping; excessive wort attenuation (small dextrin content) giving greater perception of astringent; boiling grains; excessive grain crushing; too high a lauter run-off temperature (170 degrees max); to much run-off in lautering; letting beer sit too long on trub; non-blowoff primary fermentation; alkaline mash or runoff water; too much sulfate, magnesium or iron; excessively high acidity.
REDUCTION: Process changes to eliminate the above. Crack grain properly, watch mash/runoff pH, 170 degrees maximum for lauter runoff water, use blowoff fermentation; good sanitation practice.
EXAMPLES: Young wine and grape skins; blowout from primary fermentation.
CHARACTERISTICS: Generally a desired characteristic of hop use. Bitterness will be tasted on the back of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. One of the four basic tastes.
CAUSES: Hop content and alpha strength; length of hop boil; presence of dark malts, alkaline water.
PROCESS: How long hops are boiled, type of hop, fermentation temperature (high temperature and quick fermentation decrease bitterness), filtration reduces bitterness.
REDUCTION: Lower alpha hops, hops added at stages through boil, filtration, high temperature ferment.
EXAMPLES: Bittering hop extract in water will sensitize you to bitterness.
CHARACTERISTICS: Mouth feel (will feel full). A sensation of viscosity in the mouth.
CHEMISTRY: Caused by polysaccharides (dextrins) in the beer that are unfermentable by the yeast.
CAUSES: Caused by presence of unfermentable sugars or dextrins.
INCREASE: Desired in beer. High-temperature saccharification rest in mash; use of crystal malt and cara-pils malts; use of malto-dextrin, use of lactose.
REDUCTION: Generally not desired. Use of low-temperature saccharification rest in mash, highly-fermentable wort, use of large amounts of corn sugar in wort, long storage, bacterial breakdown, not boiling wort that may have diastase enzymes present.
EXAMPLES: Low: "lite" American beers; High: Samuel Adams
CHARACTERISTICS: Visual clarity in beer contributes to its appeal and increases points given in competitions.
INCREASE: Use of well-flocculating yeast strains; clearing agents such as polyclar, papain, Irish moss, bentonite, gelatin, etc.; filtration; long, vigorous boil and quick chilling; lagering and aging.
DECREASE: Poor, wrong, weak or mutated yeast strains, some ale yeasts, wheat malt, unmalted barley, poor cold break, poor starch conversion in mash, poor malt crush with lots of flour, bacterial contamination, wild yeast contamination, all-malt beer, high protein content due to ineffective proteolytic rest (especially with undermodified malts), tannin present in beer due to excessive or high temperature sparge.
EXAMPLES: Clear - any American commercial beer; Cloudy - wheat beers
CHARACTERISTICS: As appropriate for style. Properly colored beers win more points in competitions.
LIGHTER: Use of pale malts, use of sugar or other starchy adjuncts, filtration.
DARKER: Use of higher-temperature kilned malts, use of crystal malt, use of dark malts, carmelization of the boil, oxygenating hot wort.
EXAMPLES: Light: Coors Light; Amber: Sam Adams; Dark: Celebrator or Guinness.
CHARACTERISTICS: The presence of carbonic acid in beer gives the head and bubbles when the bottle is opened and pressure released. Gives head characteristic. Taste is tart and acidic, increasing with the carbonation. This is especially noticeable on overcarbonated brews. An overall prickly or stimulating mouth feel. Small bubbles are desired, as these will retain both the head and the carbonation for a longer period.
CAUSES: CO2 from the fermentation process or from bacterial action dissolved in the beer gives carbonation.
TOO MUCH: Excessive priming sugars, bacterial contamination, presence of amylase enzymes in bottled beer, iron or calcium oxalate in the water, isomerized hop extract, autolyzed yeast sediment, excessive starch, not boiling extract worts, fusarium mold on barley or in extract, precipitation of excess salts in the bottle.
TOO LITTLE: Poor bottle cap seal, not enough priming sugar, weak or dead yeast culture when bottling (as from long lagering periods).
EXAMPLES: Highly carbonated: Wheat beers; low: English bitters.
DIACETYL
CHARACTERISTICS: A butterscotch aroma and taste, and a slickness on the palate. Not desired in excessive quantities.
CAUSES: A normal product of yeast during fermentation, it is re-absorbed during the course of a normal fermentation. Another cause is the gram-positive bacterium Pediococcus cerevisiae and similar strains in cooled beer, young beer, and aging beer. Lactobacillus strains in the mash can also cause this flavor if the mash held at low temperatures (below 131 degrees). Note that the aroma/taste produced by all of these causes is indistinguishable.
CHEMISTRY: One of a family of vicinal diketones. Presence recognized down to 0.05 ppm, but identified at 0.15 ppm.
HIGH RATES FROM PROCESS: Underpitching of yeast; long periods of wort cooling (overnight); contamination from equipment; poor yeast strain; too-soon clearing (fining) of yeast (before it can reabsorb the diacetyl); too long an acid rest in mash; high adjunct ratio in wort; low fermentation temperature; premature lagering; any process that stimulates yeast then immediately removes it from suspension; use of contaminated sediment for re-pitching (bacteria coexists with yeast in the sediment).
REDUCTION: Sanitation, quick wort chilling combined with adequate yeast starter amount (8 ounces of slurry to 5 gallons), adequate time for primary ferment before lagering or fining/filtering, all-malt recipe, higher temperature primary fermentation, pure yeast culture, washing yeast sediment prior to repitching.
EXAMPLES: HIGH: contaminated homebrew; MODERATE: Sam Smith's Nut Brown Ale, Pete's Wicked Ale.
CHARACTERISTICS: Volatile sulfur-based compounds that can give beer a taste and aroma of cooked corn, celery, cabbage or parsnip to almost oystery-shellfish-like in high concentrations. These include dimethyl sulfide (DMS), diethyl sulfide, and di-isopropyl sulfide. DMS is first perceived in aroma at around 30 ppb, and the other compounds at considerably lower concentrations. These compounds are undesirable in beer in high amounts.
CAUSES: Wort bacteria (Obesumbacterium or Hafnia) is a major cause, especially of DMS. Coliform bacteria strains can also give a strong cooked-vegetable note. Additionally, these compounds can be formed during the kilning of green malt and during mashing. DMS is also formed by the yeast in a normal fermentation, and during slow cooling of the wort by a non-microbiological chemical reaction.
HIGH LEVELS DUE TO PROCESS: Poor sanitation (primary cause); not boiling the wort for at least one hour; long cooling times (overnight) before pitching; underpitching; contaminated yeast (especially packet yeast and recovered sediment); high moisture malt; over-sparging with water below 160 degrees.
REDUCTION: Good sanitation; fresh yeast culture; good one hour or more rolling boil; quick wort cooling; high pitching rates; use of 2-row English malt; proper sparging.
EXAMPLES: Contaminated homebrew.
CHARACTERISTICS: Aromatic compounds that are identified as fruity and estery in higher amounts. The flavor and aroma of fruits such as strawberry, grapefruit, banana, raspberry, apple and pear and others can appear in beer due to these esters. Depending on the style, this can be a desired flavor or one totally unsuitable. Ales and high gravity beers are high in fruity-estery content, while pilsners and American lagers are low.
CHEMISTRY: A by-product of fermentation produced by the yeast. Fruity-estery characteristics increase with fermentation temperature.
INCREASE DUE TO PROCESS: Yeast strain used, higher fermentation temperatures, fermenting some lager yeasts at temperatures above 50 degrees, high-gravity wort.
DECREASE DUE TO PROCESS: Yeast strain used, fermenting ales around 60 degrees or less, lagers around 50 degrees or less, lower gravity wort.
EXAMPLES: High: Old Nick Barley Wine; Low: Coors.
CHARACTERISTICS: The aroma and flavor of fresh-cut grass
CHEMISTRY: The aldehyde called Hexenal, which is detectable in concentrations of 0.2 ppm.
INCREASE DUE TO PROCESS: Poor quality malt, poor storage of malt, cracking grains well in advance of brewing
DECREASE DUE TO PROCESS: Good, fresh malt stored under airtight conditions; cracking grains the day you brew or the night before.
EXAMPLES: Fresh-cut grass
CHARACTERISTICS: Good head on the beer when poured, not excessively large or small, Belgian lace on glass, head remains for a long time. Very much desired.
CAUSES: Small bubbles, dextrins, high molecular weight proteins, isohumulones from hops, nitrogen in wort.
GOOD HEAD FROM PROCESS: Use of cara-pils; use of crystal malt; use of malto-dextrin; all-malt beer; good one hour rolling boil to extract the isohumulones from the hops; use of extracts, especially those designed for use with sugar (but using malt instead of sugar); use of wheat malt; adequate protein rest in mash to allow the proteolytic enzymes to break down the large proteins into albumin and smaller fractions and increase the nitrogen; high-temperature saccharification rest; racking to secondary to get beer off sediment; lower temperature fermentation; bottle conditioning.
POOR HEAD FROM PROCESS: Use of fully modified malts; use of underkilned malts; not using a one-hour boil; inadequate protein rest, low-temperature saccharification rest; oversparging; yeast autolysis from long sediment contact; excessive fusel oils; higher temperature fermentation; excessive fatty acids; overboiling of wort; insufficient or deteriorated hops; some finings.
POOR HEAD WHEN SERVING: Soap, detergent or oils on glasses; lip balm, Chapstick or lipstick on lips.
EXAMPLES: HIGH: Wheat beer; LOW: English bitter, especially cask-conditioned.
CHARACTERISTICS: A taste spectrum that includes astringent tastes, cereal or grainy tastes, and husky tastes. Generally the grainy notes may or may not be desirable, depending on the style, but the husky astringent tastes are undesired. Husky-grainy is generally perceived as a taste, although grain notes can be present in the aroma.
CAUSES: Tannins from grain husks causes the astringent huskiness, while the graininess comes from the starches in the barley malt.
INCREASE DUE TO PROCESS: Excessive grain crushing; powdering the malt during crushing; sparge temperature in excess of 170 degrees; excessive sparging; high pH during sparging (above 6.0); boiling grains; improper decoction mashing; improper wetting of grist during mash-in; direct-firing of mash tun without proper stirring; old beer; too many salts in water (sodium, magnesium, sulfate, chloride); iron in water.
DECREASE DUE TO PROCESS: Proper crush; slow mash-in; lautering temperatures between 164-170 degrees; monitoring pH of runoff and adding gypsum to keep pH below 6; proper sparge amounts; temperature controlled or infusion mash; steeping adjunct grains (such as crystal malt added to extract brews) below 170 degrees instead of bringing to boil; water appropriate to style; iron-free water.
EXAMPLES: Grainy (appropriate): Stoneys, many Midwestern regional lagers
CHARACTERISTICS: Skunk odor; unmistakable; smells like a road kill skunk; tastes like it smells. Totally undesirable in beer.
CHEMISTRY: Light will change some of the hop content of the wort to skunklike sulfuric compounds.
HIGH CONTENT: Light-struck fermenter; clear or green glass bottles; sunlight on brown bottles; bar cooler fluorescent lights on green or clear bottles.
REDUCTION OR ELIMINATION: Fermenter shielded from light; brown or opaque bottles opaque to 400-520 nm light wavelengths; isomerized hop extract; storing beer in a cool, dark place.
EXAMPLES: Any green-bottle Eurolager left in sun for 15 minutes.
CHARACTERISTICS: A harsh, metallic taste noted both on the tip of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. Can be felt throughout the tongue and mouth in large concentrations. Not desired in beer. Also described as tinny or bloodlike.
CHEMISTRY: The ferrous ion (iron) and some organic compounds formed by hydrolysis of cereal lipids in grain, and oxidization of free fatty acids.
HIGH RATE FROM PROCESS: Iron or mild steel in contact with beer; freshly-scrubbed stainless steel that has not been allowed to
oxidize; improper filtering material; high iron content in water; poorly processed grain.
REDUCTION: Use of stainless steel; low-iron water; use of citric acid to re-oxidize stainless that has been abrasively cleaned; use of filtering materials that are acid-washed to remove iron; use of fresh, high-quality grain malt.
CHARACTERISTICS: A cellarlike, damp-earth, rank cabbagy or moldy bread odor. Not a common defect in beer.
CAUSES: Fungal contamination.
CAUSES DUE TO PROCESS: Secondary fermentation or transferring beer in a moldy environment, like a cellar. Secondary fermentation or lagering in a moldy cellar where the temperature fluctuates and permits air to be drawn into the carboy. Poor sanitation.
REMEDIES: Only expose beer to the air for transferring in a reasonably clean environment. Moldiness smelled in the air is a good indication of an unacceptable environment. Constant-temperature secondary or lagering environment (to prevent air entering carboy). Good sanitation practice.
CHARACTERISTICS: An aroma of Brazil nuts, hazelnuts, almonds, or slightly sherry-like. Not necessarily a defect, unless excessive or inappropriate for the style.
CAUSES: A product of oxidization or prolonged overheating during aging or after bottling.
CURES: Store beer in a 55 degree or less cellar; prevent oxidization or splashing when bottling or racking.
CHARACTERISTICS: Cardboard, paper, wet paper, sherry-like, rotten fruit, garbage are all characteristics of oxidation, perceived both as an aroma and a flavor.
CAUSES: Oxidation of beer and the alcohol component into fusel alcohols, trans-2-nonenal, acetaldehyde.
HIGH LEVEL: Aeration of beer when transferring or bottling; excessive head space in bottle; poorly functioning air lock; excessive age; high storage temperatures; widely-varying secondary or lagering temperatures; adding tap water to finished beer.
LOW LEVEL: Quiet transfer of beer when siphoning and bottling; flushing out bottles and kegs with CO2 before filling and capping; cool (<55 degree) storage of bottled beer; proper head space in bottle; use of ascorbic acid; good airlock; constant-temperature secondary/lagering; adding only boiled/chilled water to beer after primary fermentation.
CHARACTERISTICS: A hospital-medicine chest flavor and aroma, best detected by its aroma components; caused by phenols. Some phenolic tastes are desired depending on the style. Other descriptions
include Band-Aid-like, plasticlike, smoky, clovelike.
HIGH LEVELS DUE TO PROCESS: Yeast strain; chlorophenols in the water; improper rinse of chlorine sanitizers; oversparging; sparging above pH 6.0; sparging above 170 degrees; wild yeast contamination.
LOW LEVELS DUE TO PROCESS: Charcoal filtering of tap water; good healthy yeast strain; proper sparging while monitoring temperature and pH, good rinse of sanitizers or use of non-chlorine sanitizers.
EXAMPLES: Wheat beers have a high amount of the phenol 4-vinyl guaiacol that gives the characteristic clove taste.
CHARACTERISTICS: Salty is one of the four basic tastes. Saltiness will be found on the tongue, to either side just behind the tip. Excessive saltiness is not desired in beer for the most part, but fair quantities will be a characteristic of Dortmunder lagers and Burton ales.
CHEMISTRY: From sodium chloride and magnesium sulfate and other mineral salts.
HIGH LEVEL FROM PROCESS: Excessive addition of Burton salts or table salt or Epsom salts, especially adding these to water already high in mineral salts; water high in sodium chloride or magnesium sulfate.
LOW LEVEL: Use salt-free water; don't use or use smaller amounts of added salts, especially Burton water salts.
EXAMPLES: High salty mineral content: Bass ale; Dortmunder lagers.
Low: Pilsner Urquell
CHARACTERISTICS: An acetone-like, lacquer-thinner-like, pungent, acrid aroma which is followed up by a harsh, burning sensation on the tongue and possibly the back of the throat.
CHEMISTRY: Ethyl acetate in larger quantities (<33 ppm) is the primary cause, either by wild yeast or the yeast strain used. Other compounds may also be present.
HIGH LEVELS DUE TO PROCESS: Wild yeast contamination due to poor sanitation; high fermentation temperature; non-food grade plastic equipment in contact with the beer; open fermenter, especially after high kraeusen subsides; excessive oxygenation of the wort before pitching; oxygen in secondary fermenter.
LOW LEVELS DUE TO PROCESS: Good sanitization of equipment; only food-grade plastic used; cooler fermentation temperatures; proper wort oxygenation; closed fermenter.
CHARACTERISTICS: Another of the basic tastes. This is perceived on the sides of the tongue towards the back of the mouth. At higher levels it can be felt all the way down the throat. Generally in beer this is perceived as a sour aroma and a tartness or vinegarlike aroma. Bacteria contamination sourness can also be perceived as spoilage or putrefaction.
CHEMISTRY: Caused by lactobacillus, pediococcus, acetobacter and some yeast strains.
HIGH CONTENT DUE TO PROCESS: Poor sanitization; bad yeast strain; too much corn sugar; excessive amounts of citric or ascorbic acid; high fermentation temperatures; excessive acid rest; mashing too long; use of wooden spoon in cooled wort or fermentation; storage at warm temperatures; scratched plastic fermenter.
LOW CONTENT DUE TO PROCESS: Good sanitization; stainless steel equipment and spoons; cool fermentation temperatures; cool beer storage; mashing for not more than two hours; glass carboy fermenter.
CHARACTERISTICS: Strong sulfuric aroma and taste reminiscent of rotten eggs (hydrogen sulfide), sulfur dioxide, or yeast. Other descriptions include garlic, burnt rubber, shrimp-like, meaty.
CHEMISTRY: Formed by amino acids methionine and cysteine in the malt and by certain yeast strains and bacteria, notably Zymononas, Pectinatus, and Megasphaera. Also formed by yeast autolysis.
HIGH LEVEL IN PROCESS: Yeast strain; rapid temperature changes to fermenting wort; bacterial contamination; beer left on sediment; wild yeasts; high fermenter back pressure; poor oxygenation of wort at yeast-pitching time; use of metabisulfite in beer; old beer (yeast autolysis).
LOW LEVEL IN PROCESS: Good yeast strain; good sanitation practice; racking off sediment before lagering; cooling lagers no more than 5 degrees per day; cold-pitching lagers; strong, healthy active primary fermentation (scrubs out the gaseous sulfur compounds).
CHARACTERISTICS: One of the four basic tastes, on the tip of the tongue. Desirability dependent on the beer style.
HIGH LEVELS FROM PROCESS: Quick flocculating or low attenuating yeast strain; lack of yeast nutrients in wort; poor ferment due to lack of oxygen, yeast nutrient or other flaws; higher gravity wort with low-alcohol tolerant yeast; addition of crystal malt or licorice; high-temperature mash; addition of dextrin malt or malto-dextrin combined with a quick fermentation; addition of sugar and pasteurization; addition of lactose; premature lagering.
LOW LEVELS FROM PROCESS: Yeast strain that gives good attenuation; good primary fermentation; lagering, but only after primary fermentation is over; alcohol-tolerant yeast strain; rousing the yeast (without excessively oxygenating it) after sedimentation.
The following fifteen questions are typical of the kinds of questions that appear on the BJCP exam. Most are taken from a list of previously-used questions that appeared on the Internet and in many homebrew club newsletters in 1994. For maximum study benefit, try to answer them as if you were taking the exam - in pen and ink and without using any reference books or notes (closed book). Note that while most of the questions are examples and will most likely not be included in your exam, Question #1 appears in a similar form in every exam.
The BJCP Exam is an intensive test of your knowledge of beer, beer styles, beer evaluation and the brewing process.
The exam consists of 10 essay questions, which counts for 70% of your score, and tasting of four homebrews, which counts for 30% of your score. At least one of the 10 essay questions will test your knowledge of the BJCP program and how one progresses through it.
The exam is closed book. No books, notes, calculators, flash- lights, flavor wheels, etc. are permitted during the exam.
Three hours is given for the exam. This amounts to about 18 minutes per question. However, some questions will take longer than this and some less.
Current procedures to assure anonymity in grading include assigning test takers a registration number, which is the only identification to be placed on the tasting score sheets and the answer sheets. DO NOT WRITE YOUR NAME ON THE SCORE OR ANSWER SHEETS or you will lose points. DO write your registration number on each and every answer and score sheet.
Some rules that can help improve your score:
BUDGET YOUR TIME when taking the test! This is perhaps the most important rule to guarantee a good score on a test of this nature. The best procedure is to read all 10 questions closely before you begin writing anything, and rank them from easiest to hardest. Start on the easiest questions first, NOT the hardest! When time is called, you should be working on (or just finished) the question that was the hardest one for you.
USE TABLES whenever you can, instead of writing the answer out longhand. If you can give all the needed information in tabular form it will save you time that you can use on the questions that require detailed written descriptions. The question on the BJCP, for example, can usually be answered in tabular form by drawing a grid and filling in the boxes (accompanied by minimal written descriptions of the parts of the answer that can't be boxed).
STOP WRITING AND START TASTING immediately when each of the four beers are passed out. Otherwise you run the risk of missing important aroma characteristics that may dissipate if the beer is left to sit.
DON'T GUESS - If you don't know the answer, guessing will usually count against you. However, if you know some information about a closely-related item, put it down, making sure that the grader knows exactly what you're doing.
MAKE SURE THE NUMBER OF THE QUESTION AND YOUR REGISTRATION NUMBER appears on each and every sheet.
USE PENCIL for the score sheets in the tasting portion. Don't be afraid to erase numbers as you evaluate the beer. Either pen or pencil is OK for answering the essay questions - use what is most comfortable for you.
DON'T MAKE STUPID MISTAKES - typical mistakes that will cost you points include: